In the last decade the number of bioscience journals has increased enormously, with many filling specialised niches reflecting new disciplines and technologies. The emergence of open-access journals has revolutionised the publication process, maximising the availability of research data. Nevertheless, a wealth of evidence shows that across many areas, the reporting of biomedical research is often inadequate, leading to the view that even if the science is sound, in many cases the publications themselves are not “fit for purpose,” meaning that incomplete reporting of relevant information effectively renders many publications of limited value as instruments to inform policy or clinical and scientific practice1Simera I. Altman D.G. Writing a research article that is ‘‘fit for purpose’’: EQUATOR Network and reporting guidelines.Evid Based Med. 2009; 14: 132-134Crossref PubMed Scopus (39) Google Scholar, 2van der Worp H.B. Howells D.W. Sena E.S. Porritt M.J. Rewell S. et al.Can Animal Models of Disease Reliably Inform Human Studies?.PLoS Med. 2010; 7: e1000245https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1000245Crossref PubMed Scopus (900) Google Scholar, 3Sena E.S. van der Worp H.B. Bath P.M.W. Howells D.W. Macleod M.R. Publication Bias in Reports of Animal Stroke Studies Leads to Major Overstatement of Efficacy.PLoS Biol. 2010; 8: e1000344https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.1000344Crossref PubMed Scopus (401) Google Scholar, 4Sargeant J.M. Thompson A. Valcour J. Elgie R. Saint-Onge J. et al.Quality of reporting of clinical trials of dogs and cats and associations with treatment effects.J Vet Intern Med. 2010; 24: 44-50Crossref PubMed Scopus (46) Google Scholar, 5Kilkenny C. Parsons N. Kadyszewski E. Festing M.F.W. Cuthill I.C. et al.Survey of the Quality of Experimental Design, Statistical Analysis and Reporting of Research Using Animals.PLoS ONE. 2009; 4: e7824https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0007824Crossref PubMed Scopus (558) Google Scholar, 6Sargeant J.M. Elgie R. Valcour J. Saint-Onge J. Thompson A. et al.Methodological quality and completeness of reporting in clinical trials conducted in livestock species.Prev Vet Med. 2009; 91: 107-115Crossref PubMed Scopus (65) Google Scholar, 7Macleod M.R. Fisher M. O’Collins V. Sena E.S. Dirnagl U. et al.Good laboratory practice. Preventing introduction of bias at the bench.Stroke. 2009; 40: 50-52Crossref Scopus (229) Google Scholar, 8Hainsworth A.H. Markus H.S. Do in vivo experimental models reflect human cerebral small vessel disease? A systematic review.J Cereb Blood Flow Metab. 2008; 28: 1877-1891Crossref PubMed Scopus (194) Google Scholar, 9Rice A.S.C. Cimino-Brown D. Eisenach J.C. Kontinen V.K. Lacroix-Fralish M.L. et al.Animal models and the prediction of efficacy in clinical trials of analgesic drugs: a critical appraisal and call for uniform reporting standards.Pain. 2008; 139: 243-247Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (231) Google Scholar, 10Sherwin C.M. Animal welfare: reporting details is good science.Nature. 2007; 448: 251Crossref PubMed Scopus (8) Google Scholar, 11Jafari P. Azuaje F. An assessment of recently published gene expression analyses: reporting experimental design and statistics.BMC Med Inform Decis Mak. 2006; 6: 27Crossref PubMed Scopus (129) Google Scholar, 12Hackam D.G. Redelmeier D.A. Translation of research evidence from animals to humans.JAMA. 2006; 296: 1731-1732Crossref PubMed Scopus (497) Google Scholar, 13Perel P. Roberts I. Sena E. Wheble P. Briscoe C. et al.Comparison of treatment effects between animal experiments and clinical trials: systematic review.BMJ. 2006; 334: 197https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.39048.407928.BECrossref PubMed Scopus (556) Google Scholar, 14Macleod M. What can systematic review and meta-analysis tell us about the experimental data supporting stroke drug development?.Int J Neuroprot Neuroregener. 2005; 1: 201Google Scholar, 15Tooth L. Ware R. Bain C. Purdie D.M. Dobson A. Quality of reporting of observational longitudinal research.Am J Epidemiol. 2005; 161: 280-288Crossref PubMed Scopus (264) Google Scholar, 16Pound P. Ebrahim S. Sandercock P. Bracken M.B. Roberts I. Where is the evidence that animal research benefits humans?.BMJ. 2004; 328: 514-517Crossref PubMed Scopus (386) Google Scholar, 17Bennett L.T. Adams M.A. Assessment of ecological effects due to forest harvesting: approaches and statistical issues.J Appl Ecol. 2004; 41: 585-598Crossref Scopus (66) Google Scholar, 18Morris C.E. Bardin M. Berge O. Frey-Klett P. Fromin N. Microbial biodiversity: approaches to experimental design and hypothesis testing in primary scientific literature from 1975 to 1999.Microbiol Mol Biol Rev. 2002; 66: 592-616Crossref PubMed Scopus (82) Google Scholar, 19Smith J.A. Birke L. Sadler D. Reporting animal use in scientific papers.Lab Anim. 1997; 31: 312-317Crossref PubMed Scopus (37) Google Scholar, 20McCance I. Assessment of statistical procedures used in papers in the Australian Veterinary Journal.Aust Vet J. 1995; 72: 322-328Crossref PubMed Scopus (42) Google Scholar, 21Pocock S.J. Hughes M.D. Lee R.J. Statistical problems in the reporting of clinical trials. A survey of three medical journals.New Engl J Med. 1987; 317: 426-432Crossref PubMed Scopus (513) Google Scholar. A recent review of clinical research showed that there is considerable cumulative waste of financial resources at all stages of the research process, including as a result of publications that are unusable due to poor reporting22Chalmers I. Glasziou P. Avoidable waste in the production and reporting of research evidence.Lancet. 2009; 374: 86-89Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (1207) Google Scholar. It is unlikely that this issue is confined to clinical research2van der Worp H.B. Howells D.W. Sena E.S. Porritt M.J. Rewell S. et al.Can Animal Models of Disease Reliably Inform Human Studies?.PLoS Med. 2010; 7: e1000245https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1000245Crossref PubMed Scopus (900) Google Scholar, 3Sena E.S. van der Worp H.B. Bath P.M.W. Howells D.W. Macleod M.R. Publication Bias in Reports of Animal Stroke Studies Leads to Major Overstatement of Efficacy.PLoS Biol. 2010; 8: e1000344https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.1000344Crossref PubMed Scopus (401) Google Scholar, 4Sargeant J.M. Thompson A. Valcour J. Elgie R. Saint-Onge J. et al.Quality of reporting of clinical trials of dogs and cats and associations with treatment effects.J Vet Intern Med. 2010; 24: 44-50Crossref PubMed Scopus (46) Google Scholar, 5Kilkenny C. Parsons N. Kadyszewski E. Festing M.F.W. Cuthill I.C. et al.Survey of the Quality of Experimental Design, Statistical Analysis and Reporting of Research Using Animals.PLoS ONE. 2009; 4: e7824https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0007824Crossref PubMed Scopus (558) Google Scholar, 6Sargeant J.M. Elgie R. Valcour J. Saint-Onge J. Thompson A. et al.Methodological quality and completeness of reporting in clinical trials conducted in livestock species.Prev Vet Med. 2009; 91: 107-115Crossref PubMed Scopus (65) Google Scholar, 7Macleod M.R. Fisher M. O’Collins V. Sena E.S. Dirnagl U. et al.Good laboratory practice. Preventing introduction of bias at the bench.Stroke. 2009; 40: 50-52Crossref Scopus (229) Google Scholar, 8Hainsworth A.H. Markus H.S. Do in vivo experimental models reflect human cerebral small vessel disease? A systematic review.J Cereb Blood Flow Metab. 2008; 28: 1877-1891Crossref PubMed Scopus (194) Google Scholar, 9Rice A.S.C. Cimino-Brown D. Eisenach J.C. Kontinen V.K. Lacroix-Fralish M.L. et al.Animal models and the prediction of efficacy in clinical trials of analgesic drugs: a critical appraisal and call for uniform reporting standards.Pain. 2008; 139: 243-247Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (231) Google Scholar, 10Sherwin C.M. Animal welfare: reporting details is good science.Nature. 2007; 448: 251Crossref PubMed Scopus (8) Google Scholar, 11Jafari P. Azuaje F. An assessment of recently published gene expression analyses: reporting experimental design and statistics.BMC Med Inform Decis Mak. 2006; 6: 27Crossref PubMed Scopus (129) Google Scholar, 12Hackam D.G. Redelmeier D.A. Translation of research evidence from animals to humans.JAMA. 2006; 296: 1731-1732Crossref PubMed Scopus (497) Google Scholar, 13Perel P. Roberts I. Sena E. Wheble P. Briscoe C. et al.Comparison of treatment effects between animal experiments and clinical trials: systematic review.BMJ. 2006; 334: 197https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.39048.407928.BECrossref PubMed Scopus (556) Google Scholar, 14Macleod M. What can systematic review and meta-analysis tell us about the experimental data supporting stroke drug development?.Int J Neuroprot Neuroregener. 2005; 1: 201Google Scholar, 16Pound P. Ebrahim S. Sandercock P. Bracken M.B. Roberts I. Where is the evidence that animal research benefits humans?.BMJ. 2004; 328: 514-517Crossref PubMed Scopus (386) Google Scholar, 17Bennett L.T. Adams M.A. Assessment of ecological effects due to forest harvesting: approaches and statistical issues.J Appl Ecol. 2004; 41: 585-598Crossref Scopus (66) Google Scholar, 18Morris C.E. Bardin M. Berge O. Frey-Klett P. Fromin N. Microbial biodiversity: approaches to experimental design and hypothesis testing in primary scientific literature from 1975 to 1999.Microbiol Mol Biol Rev. 2002; 66: 592-616Crossref PubMed Scopus (82) Google Scholar, 19Smith J.A. Birke L. Sadler D. Reporting animal use in scientific papers.Lab Anim. 1997; 31: 312-317Crossref PubMed Scopus (37) Google Scholar, 20McCance I. Assessment of statistical procedures used in papers in the Australian Veterinary Journal.Aust Vet J. 1995; 72: 322-328Crossref PubMed Scopus (42) Google Scholar. Failure to describe research methods and to report results appropriately therefore has potential scientific, ethical, and economic implications for the entire research process and the reputation of those involved in it. This is particularly true for animal research, one of the most controversial areas of science. The largest and most comprehensive review of published animal research undertaken to date, to our knowledge, has highlighted serious omissions in the way research using animals is reported5Kilkenny C. Parsons N. Kadyszewski E. Festing M.F.W. Cuthill I.C. et al.Survey of the Quality of Experimental Design, Statistical Analysis and Reporting of Research Using Animals.PLoS ONE. 2009; 4: e7824https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0007824Crossref PubMed Scopus (558) Google Scholar. The survey, commissioned by the National Centre for the Replacement, Refinement and Reduction of Animals in Research (NC3Rs), a UK Government-sponsored scientific organisation, found that only 59% of the 271 randomly chosen articles assessed stated the hypothesis or objective of the study, and the number and characteristics of the animals used (i.e., species/strain, sex, and age/weight). Most of the papers surveyed did not report using randomisation (87%) or blinding (86%) to reduce bias in animal selection and outcome assessment. Only 70% of the publications that used statistical methods fully described them and presented the results with a measure of precision or variability5Kilkenny C. Parsons N. Kadyszewski E. Festing M.F.W. Cuthill I.C. et al.Survey of the Quality of Experimental Design, Statistical Analysis and Reporting of Research Using Animals.PLoS ONE. 2009; 4: e7824https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0007824Crossref PubMed Scopus (558) Google Scholar. These findings are a cause for concern and are consistent with reviews of many research areas, including clinical studies, published in recent years2van der Worp H.B. Howells D.W. Sena E.S. Porritt M.J. Rewell S. et al.Can Animal Models of Disease Reliably Inform Human Studies?.PLoS Med. 2010; 7: e1000245https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1000245Crossref PubMed Scopus (900) Google Scholar, 3Sena E.S. van der Worp H.B. Bath P.M.W. Howells D.W. Macleod M.R. Publication Bias in Reports of Animal Stroke Studies Leads to Major Overstatement of Efficacy.PLoS Biol. 2010; 8: e1000344https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.1000344Crossref PubMed Scopus (401) Google Scholar, 4Sargeant J.M. Thompson A. Valcour J. Elgie R. Saint-Onge J. et al.Quality of reporting of clinical trials of dogs and cats and associations with treatment effects.J Vet Intern Med. 2010; 24: 44-50Crossref PubMed Scopus (46) Google Scholar, 5Kilkenny C. Parsons N. Kadyszewski E. Festing M.F.W. Cuthill I.C. et al.Survey of the Quality of Experimental Design, Statistical Analysis and Reporting of Research Using Animals.PLoS ONE. 2009; 4: e7824https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0007824Crossref PubMed Scopus (558) Google Scholar, 6Sargeant J.M. Elgie R. Valcour J. Saint-Onge J. Thompson A. et al.Methodological quality and completeness of reporting in clinical trials conducted in livestock species.Prev Vet Med. 2009; 91: 107-115Crossref PubMed Scopus (65) Google Scholar, 7Macleod M.R. Fisher M. O’Collins V. Sena E.S. Dirnagl U. et al.Good laboratory practice. Preventing introduction of bias at the bench.Stroke. 2009; 40: 50-52Crossref Scopus (229) Google Scholar, 8Hainsworth A.H. Markus H.S. Do in vivo experimental models reflect human cerebral small vessel disease? A systematic review.J Cereb Blood Flow Metab. 2008; 28: 1877-1891Crossref PubMed Scopus (194) Google Scholar, 9Rice A.S.C. Cimino-Brown D. Eisenach J.C. Kontinen V.K. Lacroix-Fralish M.L. et al.Animal models and the prediction of efficacy in clinical trials of analgesic drugs: a critical appraisal and call for uniform reporting standards.Pain. 2008; 139: 243-247Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (231) Google Scholar, 10Sherwin C.M. Animal welfare: reporting details is good science.Nature. 2007; 448: 251Crossref PubMed Scopus (8) Google Scholar, 11Jafari P. Azuaje F. An assessment of recently published gene expression analyses: reporting experimental design and statistics.BMC Med Inform Decis Mak. 2006; 6: 27Crossref PubMed Scopus (129) Google Scholar, 12Hackam D.G. Redelmeier D.A. Translation of research evidence from animals to humans.JAMA. 2006; 296: 1731-1732Crossref PubMed Scopus (497) Google Scholar, 13Perel P. Roberts I. Sena E. Wheble P. Briscoe C. et al.Comparison of treatment effects between animal experiments and clinical trials: systematic review.BMJ. 2006; 334: 197https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.39048.407928.BECrossref PubMed Scopus (556) Google Scholar, 14Macleod M. What can systematic review and meta-analysis tell us about the experimental data supporting stroke drug development?.Int J Neuroprot Neuroregener. 2005; 1: 201Google Scholar, 15Tooth L. Ware R. Bain C. Purdie D.M. Dobson A. Quality of reporting of observational longitudinal research.Am J Epidemiol. 2005; 161: 280-288Crossref PubMed Scopus (264) Google Scholar, 16Pound P. Ebrahim S. Sandercock P. Bracken M.B. Roberts I. Where is the evidence that animal research benefits humans?.BMJ. 2004; 328: 514-517Crossref PubMed Scopus (386) Google Scholar, 17Bennett L.T. Adams M.A. Assessment of ecological effects due to forest harvesting: approaches and statistical issues.J Appl Ecol. 2004; 41: 585-598Crossref Scopus (66) Google Scholar, 18Morris C.E. Bardin M. Berge O. Frey-Klett P. Fromin N. Microbial biodiversity: approaches to experimental design and hypothesis testing in primary scientific literature from 1975 to 1999.Microbiol Mol Biol Rev. 2002; 66: 592-616Crossref PubMed Scopus (82) Google Scholar, 19Smith J.A. Birke L. Sadler D. Reporting animal use in scientific papers.Lab Anim. 1997; 31: 312-317Crossref PubMed Scopus (37) Google Scholar, 20McCance I. Assessment of statistical procedures used in papers in the Australian Veterinary Journal.Aust Vet J. 1995; 72: 322-328Crossref PubMed Scopus (42) Google Scholar, 21Pocock S.J. Hughes M.D. Lee R.J. Statistical problems in the reporting of clinical trials. A survey of three medical journals.New Engl J Med. 1987; 317: 426-432Crossref PubMed Scopus (513) Google Scholar, 22Chalmers I. Glasziou P. Avoidable waste in the production and reporting of research evidence.Lancet. 2009; 374: 86-89Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (1207) Google Scholar. Scrutiny by scientific peers has long been the mainstay of “quality control” for the publication process. The way that experiments are reported, in terms of the level of detail of methods and the presentation of key results, is crucial to the peer review process and, indeed, the subsequent utility and validity of the knowledge base that is used to inform future research. The onus is therefore on the research community to ensure that their research articles include all relevant information to allow in-depth critique, and to avoiding duplicating studies and performing redundant experiments. Ideally scientific publications should present sufficient information to allow a knowledgeable reader to understand what was done, why, and how, and to assess the biological relevance of the study and the reliability and validity of the findings. There should also be enough information to allow the experiment to be repeated23Festing M.F. Altman D.G. Guidelines for the design and statistical analysis of experiments using laboratory animals.ILAR J. 2002; 43: 244-258Crossref PubMed Scopus (572) Google Scholar. The problem therefore is how to ensure that all relevant information is included in research publications. Evidence provided by reviews of published research suggests that many researchers and peer reviewers would benefit from guidance about what information should be provided in a research article. The CONSORT Statement for randomised controlled clinical trials was one of the first guidelines developed in response to this need24Schulz K.F. Altman D.G. Moher D. the CONSORT Group CONSORT 2010 statement: updated guidelines for reporting parallel group randomised trials.BMJ. 2010; 340: c332Crossref PubMed Scopus (4666) Google Scholar, 25Moher D. Schulz K.F. 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Improved reporting of these and other details will maximise the availability and utility of the information gained from every animal and every experiment, preventing unnecessary animal use in the future. To address this, we led an initiative to produce guidelines for reporting animal research. The guidelines, referred to as ARRIVE, have been developed using the CONSORT Statement as their foundation24Schulz K.F. Altman D.G. Moher D. the CONSORT Group CONSORT 2010 statement: updated guidelines for reporting parallel group randomised trials.BMJ. 2010; 340: c332Crossref PubMed Scopus (4666) Google Scholar, 25Moher D. Schulz K.F. Altman D.G. for the CONSORT Group The CONSORT statement: revised recommendations for improving the quality of reports of parallel-group randomised trials.Lancet. 2001; 357: 1191-1194Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (3077) Google Scholar. The ARRIVE guidelines consist of a checklist of 20 items describing the minimum information that all scientific publications reporting research using animals should include, such as the number and specific characteristics of animals used (including species, strain, sex, and genetic background); details of housing and husbandry; and the experimental, statistical, and analytical methods (including details of methods used to reduce bias such as randomisation and blinding). All the items in the checklist have been included to promote high-quality, comprehensive reporting to allow an accurate critical review of what was done and what was found. Consensus and consultation are the corner-stones of the guideline development process51Moher D. Schulz K. Simera I. Altman D.G. Guidance for developers of health research reporting guidelines.PLoS Med. 2010; 7: e1000217https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1000217Crossref PubMed Scopus (702) Google Scholar. To maximise their utility, the ARRIVE guidelines have been prepared in consultation with scientists, statisticians, journal editors, and research funders. We convened an expert working group, comprising researchers and statisticians from a range of disciplines, and journal editors from Nature Cell Biology, Science, Laboratory Animals, and the British Journal of Pharmacology (see Acknowledgments). At a one-day meeting in June 2009, the working group agreed the scope and broad content of a draft set of guidelines that were then used as the basis for a wider consultation with the scientific community, involving researchers, and grant holders and representatives of the major bioscience funding bodies including the Medical Research Council, Wellcome Trust, Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council, and The Royal Society (see Table I). Feedback on the content and wording of the items was incorporated into the final version of the checklist. Further feedback on the content utility of the guidelines is encouraged and sought.Table IFunding bodies consultedName of Bioscience Research Funding BodyMedical Research CouncilBiotechnology and Biological Sciences Research CouncilWellcome TrustThe Royal SocietyAssociation of Medical Research CharitiesBritish Heart FoundationParkinson’s Disease Societydoi:10.1371/journal.pbio.1000412.t001. Open table in a new tab doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.1000412.t001. The ARRIVE guidelines (see Table II) can be applied to any area of bioscience research using laboratory animals, and the inherent principles apply not only to reporting comparative experiments but also to other study designs. Laboratory animal refers to any species of animal undergoing an experimental procedure in a research laboratory or formal test setting. The guidelines are not intended to be mandatory or absolutely prescriptive, nor to standardise or formalise the structure of reporting. Rather they provide a checklist that can be used to guide authors preparing manuscripts for publication, and by those involved in peer review for quality assurance, to ensure completeness and transparency.Table IIAnimal research: reporting in vivo experiments: the ARRIVE guidelinesItemRecommendationTitle1Provide as accurate and concise a description of the content of the article as possible.Abstract2Provide an accurate summary of the background, research objectives (including details of the species or strain of animal used), key methods, principal findings, and conclusions of the study.Introduction Background3a. Include sufficient scientific background (including relevant references to previous work) to understand the motivation and context for the study, and explain the experimental approach and rationale.b. Explain how and why the animal species and model being used can address the scientific objectives and, where appropriate, the study’s relevance to human biology. Objectives4Clearly describe the primary and any secondary objectives of the study, or specific hypotheses being tested.Methods Ethical statement5Indicate the nature of the ethical review permissions, relevant licences (e.g., Animal [Scientific Procedures] Act 1986), and national or institutional guidelines for the care and use of animals, that cover the research. Study design6For each experiment, give brief details of the study design, including:a. The number of experimental and control groups.b. Any steps taken to minimise the effects of subjective bias when allocating animals to treatment (e.g., randomisation procedure) and when assessing results (e.g., if done, describe who was blinded and when).c. The experimental unit (e.g., a single animal, group, or cage of animals). A time-line diagram or flow chart can be useful to illustrate how complex study designs were carried out. Experimental procedures7For each experiment and each experimental group, including controls, provide precise details of all procedures carried out. For example:a. How (e.g., drug formulation and dose, site and route of administration, anaesthesia and analgesia used [including monitoring], surgical procedure, method of euthanasia). Provide details of any specialist equipment used, including supplier(s).b. When (e.g., time of day).c. Where (e.g., home cage, laboratory, water maze).d. Why (e.g., rationale for choice of specific anaesthetic, route of administration, drug dose used). Experimental animals8a. Provide details of the animals used, including species, strain, sex, developmental stage (e.g., mean or median age plus age range), and weight (e.g., mean or median weight plus weight range).b. Provide further relevant information such as the source of animals, international strain nomenclature, genetic modification status (e.g., knock-out or transgenic), genotype, health/immune status, drug- or testnaïve, previous procedures, etc. Housing and husbandry9Provide details of:a. Housing (e.g., type of facility, e.g., specific pathogen free (SPF); type of cage or housing; bedding material; number of cage companions; tank shape and material etc. for fish).b. Husbandry conditions (e.g., breeding programme, light/dark cycle, temperature, quality of water etc. for fish, type of food, access to food and water, environmental enrichment).c. Welfare-related assessments and interventions that were carried out before, during, or after the experiment. Sample size10a. Specify the total number of animals used in each experiment and the number of animals in each experimental group.b. Explain how the number of animals was decided. Provide details of any sample size calculation used.c. Indicate the number of independent replications of each experiment, if relevant. Allocating animals to experimental groups11a. Give full details of how animals were allocated to experimental groups, including randomisation or matching if done.b. Describe the order in which the animals in the different experimental groups were treated and assessed. Experimental outcomes12Clearly define the primary and secondary experimental outcomes assessed (e.g., cell death, molecular markers, behavioural changes). Statistical methods13a. Provide details of the statistical methods used for each analysis.b. Specify the unit of analysis for each dataset (e.g., single animal, group of animals, single neuron).c. Describe any methods used to assess whether the data met the assumptions of the statistical approach.Results Baseline data14For each experimental group, report relevant characteristics and health status of animals (e.g., weight, microbiological status, and drug- or test-naïve) before treatment or testing (this information can often be tabulated). Numbers analysed15a. Report the number of animals in each group included in each analysis. Report absolute numbers (e.g., 10/20, not 50%∗Schulz, et al. (2010)24.).b. If any animals or data were not included in the analysis, explain why. Outcomes and estimation16Report the results for each analysis carried out, with a measure of precision (e.g., standard error or confidence interval). Adverse events17a. Give details of all important adverse events in each experimental group.b. Describe any modifications to the experimental protocols made to reduce adverse events.Discussion Interpretation/scientific implications18a. Interpret the results, taking into account the study objectives and hypotheses, current theory, and other relevant studies in the literature.b. Comment on the study limitations including any potential sources of bias, any limitations of the animal model, and the imprecision associated with the results∗Schulz, et al. (2010)24..c. Describe any implications of your experimental methods or findings for the replacement, refinement, or reduction (the 3Rs) of the use of animals in research. Generalisability/translation19Comment on whether, and how, the findings of this study are likely to translate to other species or systems, including any relevance to human biology. Funding20List all funding sources (including grant number) and the role of the funder(s) in the study.doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.1000412.t002.∗ Schulz, et al. (2010)24Schulz K.F. Altman D.G. 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