Article13 March 2008free access Munc18a controls SNARE assembly through its interaction with the syntaxin N-peptide Pawel Burkhardt Pawel Burkhardt Research Group Structural Biochemistry, Department of Neurobiology, Max-Planck-Institute for Biophysical Chemistry, Göttingen, Germany Search for more papers by this author Douglas A Hattendorf Douglas A Hattendorf Department of Structural Biology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA Department of Molecular and Cellular Physiology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA Search for more papers by this author William I Weis William I Weis Department of Structural Biology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA Department of Molecular and Cellular Physiology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA Search for more papers by this author Dirk Fasshauer Corresponding Author Dirk Fasshauer Research Group Structural Biochemistry, Department of Neurobiology, Max-Planck-Institute for Biophysical Chemistry, Göttingen, Germany Search for more papers by this author Pawel Burkhardt Pawel Burkhardt Research Group Structural Biochemistry, Department of Neurobiology, Max-Planck-Institute for Biophysical Chemistry, Göttingen, Germany Search for more papers by this author Douglas A Hattendorf Douglas A Hattendorf Department of Structural Biology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA Department of Molecular and Cellular Physiology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA Search for more papers by this author William I Weis William I Weis Department of Structural Biology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA Department of Molecular and Cellular Physiology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA Search for more papers by this author Dirk Fasshauer Corresponding Author Dirk Fasshauer Research Group Structural Biochemistry, Department of Neurobiology, Max-Planck-Institute for Biophysical Chemistry, Göttingen, Germany Search for more papers by this author Author Information Pawel Burkhardt1, Douglas A Hattendorf2,3, William I Weis2,3 and Dirk Fasshauer 1 1Research Group Structural Biochemistry, Department of Neurobiology, Max-Planck-Institute for Biophysical Chemistry, Göttingen, Germany 2Department of Structural Biology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA 3Department of Molecular and Cellular Physiology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA *Corresponding author. Department of Neurobiology, Max-Planck-Institute for Biophysical Chemistry, Göttingen, Am Fassberg 11, 37077 Germany. Tel.: +49 551 201 1637; Fax: +49 551 202 1499; E-mail: [email protected] The EMBO Journal (2008)27:923-933https://doi.org/10.1038/emboj.2008.37 There is a Have you seen ...? (January 2009) associated with this Article. PDFDownload PDF of article text and main figures. ToolsAdd to favoritesDownload CitationsTrack CitationsPermissions ShareFacebookTwitterLinked InMendeleyWechatReddit Figures & Info Sec1/Munc18-like (SM) proteins functionally interact with SNARE proteins in vesicular fusion. Despite their high sequence conservation, structurally disparate binding modes for SM proteins with syntaxins have been observed. Several SM proteins appear to bind only to a short peptide present at the N terminus of syntaxin, designated the N-peptide, while Munc18a binds to a ‘closed’ conformation formed by the remaining portion of syntaxin 1a. Here, we show that the syntaxin 16 N-peptide binds to the SM protein Vps45, but the remainder of syntaxin 16 strongly enhances the affinity of the interaction. Likewise, the N-peptide of syntaxin 1a serves as a second binding site in the Munc18a/syntaxin 1a complex. When the syntaxin 1a N-peptide is bound to Munc18a, SNARE complex formation is blocked. Removal of the N-peptide enables binding of syntaxin 1a to its partner SNARE SNAP-25, while still bound to Munc18a. This suggests that Munc18a controls the accessibility of syntaxin 1a to its partners, a role that might be common to all SM proteins. Introduction Transport of cargo between organelles in eukaryotic cells is mediated by vesicles that bud from a donor compartment and specifically fuse with an acceptor membrane. The central machinery involved in the fusion process is composed of members of the SNARE (soluble N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor attachment receptor) protein family. SNAREs anchored in the vesicle and target membrane are thought to assemble in a zipper-like fashion into a four-helix bundle, providing the energy to drive fusion of the two bilayers (Hong, 2005; Jahn and Scheller, 2006). Although SNAREs are sufficient to drive membrane fusion when inserted into liposome membranes (Weber et al, 1998; Pobbati et al, 2006), this minimal machinery is organized and controlled by additional factors in vivo. Members of the cytosolic Sec1/Munc18-like (SM) family of proteins have been established as essential factors in different intracellular transport steps, during which they functionally interact with the SNARE machinery. However, the molecular basis for this interaction is not entirely understood. In particular, the SM protein Munc18a (also known as Unc18, nSec1, and Rop) has an ambiguous role in the Ca2+-dependent discharge of neurotransmitter from synaptic vesicles (reviewed by Rizo and Sudhof, 2002; Gallwitz and Jahn, 2003; Toonen and Verhage, 2003, 2007; Weimer and Richmond, 2005; Burgoyne and Morgan, 2007). This vesicular fusion step is mediated by a well-characterized set of SNAREs, consisting of the synaptic vesicle protein synaptobrevin/VAMP 2 and the two plasma membrane proteins syntaxin 1a and SNAP-25. Munc18a binds with nanomolar affinity to syntaxin 1a (Pevsner et al, 1994). The cytosolic domain of syntaxin 1a contains a conserved N-terminal peptide, followed by a three-helix bundle designated Habc (Fernandez et al, 1998), a linker, and the H3 domain, which forms one of the helices in the SNARE complex. When bound to Munc18a, syntaxin 1a adopts a ‘closed’ conformation in which the H3 domain folds back onto Habc, rendering it inaccessible to its partner SNAREs (Pevsner et al, 1994; Dulubova et al, 1999; Misura et al, 2000; Yang et al, 2000). Therefore, for syntaxin 1a, to assemble into a SNARE complex, it is thought that it must dissociate from Munc18a and switch to an open conformation in which the H3 domain is accessible. Dissociation of the Munc18a–syntaxin 1 complex, however, is a slow process (Pevsner et al, 1994), which is likely related to the extensive interaction surface between syntaxin 1a and the clamp-like structure formed by the three domains of Munc18a (Misura et al, 2000). Although biochemical and structural data imply an inhibitory role for Munc18, loss of Munc18a function blocks neurotransmitter release, indicating that this molecule has an essential, positive role in neuronal secretion (Weimer and Richmond, 2005). Studies of other SM proteins that serve in different intracellular trafficking pathways also support an activating role for this family (Toonen and Verhage, 2003; Weimer and Richmond, 2005). A binding mode distinct from that of Munc18a–syntaxin 1a appears to govern the interaction of several SM proteins with their cognate syntaxins, in particular, between Sly1 and Sed5/syntaxin 5, and Vps45 and Tlg2/syntaxin 16. In these complexes, the very N-terminal region of the syntaxin preceding the Habc domain, designated the N-peptide, binds to the outer surface of the SM domain 1 (Bracher and Weissenhorn, 2002; Dulubova et al, 2002; Peng and Gallwitz, 2002), opposite the domain 1 surface that interacts with the closed conformation of syntaxin 1a. Unlike Munc18a, these other SM proteins are thought not to interact with the remainder of their cognate syntaxin molecule, suggesting that the N-peptide interaction somehow assists in the formation of SNARE complexes rather than inhibiting access of the syntaxin SNARE motif (Rizo and Sudhof, 2002; Gallwitz and Jahn, 2003; Toonen and Verhage, 2003, 2007; Weimer and Richmond, 2005; Burgoyne and Morgan, 2007). As Munc18a does not bind detectably to the isolated N-peptide of syntaxin 1a (Dulubova et al, 2003; Shen et al, 2007), it was thought that it cannot mediate a comparable role in vesicle fusion. A third mode of SM function appears to occur in yeast Sec1p, which does not bind to the plasma membrane syntaxin Sso1p, but can instead bind to the assembled plasma membrane SNARE complex (Scott et al, 2004; Togneri et al, 2006). Recent findings have begun to address the apparent discrepancies in the mechanisms of SM proteins. The isolated N-peptide of syntaxin 4 is able to bind to the outer surface of Munc18c, in a manner similar to that observed in the Sly1–Sed5 complex (Hu et al, 2007). Munc18c and syntaxin 4 are closely related to Munc18a and syntaxin 1a. Furthermore, Munc18a can bind to an assembled SNARE complex (Dulubova et al, 2007; Khvotchev et al, 2007; Shen et al, 2007), and this interaction requires the syntaxin N-peptide. As the N-peptide alone is not sufficient for binding, it is clear that other regions of the SNAREs must participate in the interaction. Based on these data, it has been proposed that when bound to the assembled SNARE complex via the syntaxin N-peptide, Munc18a somehow stimulates the membrane fusion reaction. This configuration is believed to be similar to the binding mode employed by Sly1/Sed5 (endoplasmic reticulum-Golgi trafficking), Vps45/syntaxin 16 (endosomal trafficking), and Munc18c/syntaxin 4 (regulated secretion in a variety of cell types), thus providing a common interaction mechanism between SM proteins and syntaxins. In contrast, the tight interaction between Munc18a and the closed conformation of syntaxin 1a was proposed to represent an additional role of Munc18a, either in sequestering syntaxin 1a from other SNAREs (Shen et al, 2007) or in the process of docking and priming of the vesicle(Dulubova et al, 2007). This latter binding mode was suggested to be specific for SM proteins of the Munc18a-like type involved in regulated secretion. Although these models appear to explain some of the SM properties, they do not answer a critical question regarding the neuronal system: how can syntaxin 1a escape the tight grip of Munc18a to participate in SNARE complex formation? Moreover, the models are based on semiquantitative protein-binding assays, and the effect of Munc18a on the kinetics of SNARE assembly has not been examined. Here, we provide thermodynamic, kinetic, and structural data indicating that the conserved N-peptide of syntaxin 1a acts as a switch controlling the binding of Munc18a to the closed, inhibited conformation of syntaxin 1a or to the SNARE complex. We also find that Vps45 interacts detectably with the N-peptide of syntaxin 16, but the interaction is stronger when the remainder of syntaxin 16 is present. These findings suggest that both modes of interaction may occur in many SM–syntaxin pairs. Results The syntaxin 1a N-peptide contributes to the affinity for Munc18a Isothermal titration calorimetry (ITC) and fluorescence spectroscopy were used to accurately measure the thermodynamics and kinetics of the Munc18a–syntaxin 1a interaction. The cytosolic domain of syntaxin 1, Syx1a (1–262), binds to Munc18 with a favourable binding enthalpy (ΔH≈ −35 kcal/mol) and a dissociation constant Kd of approximately 1 nM (Table I; Figure 1), which is at the lower limit of the ITC instrument. This high affinity was confirmed by using the increase in tryptophan fluorescence upon binding and also by determining the dissociation and association rate constants, which gave a Kd of 0.3 nM (Supplementary Figure 1). Our findings are in agreement with the affinity of 5.7 nM determined by surface plasmon resonance spectroscopy experiments in which soluble Munc18 was flowed over immobilized syntaxin 1a (Pevsner et al, 1994). The surface plasmon resonance experiments also gave an association rate constant of kon≈42000 M−1 s−1 and a dissociation rate constant of koff≈0.00024 s−1. When we measured the rate of dissociation in solution, we observed a roughly 10-fold increase in the dissociation rate constant (koff≈0.0011 s−1) and a 100-fold increase the association rate constant (≈5 × 106 M−1 s−1) (Supplementary Figure 1). Figure 1.The N-peptide participates in binding of syntaxin 1a to Munc18a. Calorimetric titrations of Syx1a (1–262 or 25–262) into Munc18a. Shown are the integrated areas normalized to the amount of syntaxin 1a (kcal/mol) versus the molar ratio of syntaxin to Munc18a. The solid lines represent the best fit to the data for a single binding site model using a nonlinear least squares fit. Download figure Download PowerPoint Table 1. Thermodynamic parameters of the interaction of syntaxins and SM proteins measured by ITC Interaction of Kd (nM) ΔH° (kcal/mole) n Syx1a (1–262)/Munc18a 1.4±0.3 −34.6±0.2 1.03 Syx1a (1–240)/Munc18a 2.7±0.6 −34.3±0.4 1.01 Syx1a (1–226)/Munc18a 621.1±107.2 −8.0±0.5 0.84 Syx1a (1–179)/Munc18a 693.9±84.2 −5.5±0.5 0.91 Syx1a (1–20)/Munc18a — — — Syx1a (25–262)/Munc18a 8.1±1.0 −25.1±0.2 1.01 Syx1a (180–262)/Munc18a — — — Syx1a (180–262)+Syx1a (1–179)/Munc18a 277.8±33.7 −21.2±0.8 0.94 Syx1aLE/Munc18a 7.7±0.6 −34.8±0.2 0.99 Syx1aI233A/Munc18a 333.3±58.4 −16.0±0.7 0.93 Syx1aR4A/Munc18a 9.4±1.6 −27.3±0.3 1.03 Syx1aT5A/Munc18a 1.9±0.7 −32.6±0.3 1.01 Syx1aL8A/Munc18a 9.1±1.7 −27.3±0.3 1.01 Syx1aT10A/Munc18a 0.4±0.2 −34.6±0.2 1.05 Syx1aS14A/Munc18a 2.6±1.3 −33.5±0.4 1.03 SNARE complex containing Syx1a (1–262)/Munc18a 719.4±118.0 −4.8±0.4 0.84 SNARE complex containing Syx1a (25–262)/Munc18a — — — Syx16 (1–302)/Vps45 2.1±1.2 −23.8±0.2 1.09 Syx16 (1–279)/Vps45 0.85±0.3 −26.3±0.1 0.96 Syx16 (1–265)/Vps45 11.7±3.6 −13.6±0.2 1.07 Syx16 (1–183)/Vps45 32.5±0.3 −12.0±0.1 0.93 Syx16 (1–27)/Vps45 26.9±0.3 −11.6±0.1 0.95 Syx16 (1–27)F10A/Vps45 — — — Syx16 (1–302)F10A/Vps45 116.6±16.5 −15.6±0.5 0.85 Syx16 (28–302)/Vps45 — — — All isothermal calorimetric experiments were performed at 25°C in PBS buffer. The experimental ITC data for the interaction of Munc18a and syntaxin 1a variants and for Vps45 and syntaxin 16 variants are shown, respectively, in Supplementary Figures 6 and 7. Remarkably, a syntaxin 1a variant, Syx1a (25–262), in which the 24 N-terminal residues are removed showed a reduced affinity (Kd≈8 nM), accompanied by a clear decrease in binding enthalpy (ΔH°≈−25 kcal/mol, Figure 1). The difference in binding enthalpy very likely reflects the additional contribution of the syntaxin 1a N-peptide to the interaction. The syntaxin 1a N-peptide is seen in the structure of the Munc18a–syntaxin 1a complex The finding that the N-peptide of syntaxin 1a enhances the affinity of the Munc18a/syntaxin1a interaction led us to re-examine the published structure of the Munc18a/Syx1a complex. We originally reported that the first 26 residues of syntaxin1a could not be modelled into the electron density and were therefore likely to be disordered (Misura et al, 2000). However, there was some significant, but uninterpretable, residual electron density on the outer surface of domain 1 of Munc18a, which the subsequent structures of Munc18c–syntaxin4 (Hu et al, 2007) and Sly1–Sed5 (Bracher and Weissenhorn, 2002) revealed as the N-peptide-binding site. Using these other structures as a guide, we could place the conserved Asp3-Arg4-Thr5 (DRT) motif of the syntaxin1a peptide into this density. Re-refinement of the published structure (Table II) improved the electron density in this region, and residues 2–9 of syntaxin 1a could be modelled (Figure 2A). Thus, the N-peptide of syntaxin1a binds to its predicted site (Hu et al, 2007) on Munc18a, while the Habc and SNARE domain are bound in the closed conformation to a second site on the inside of the Munc18a arch (Figure 2B). Figure 2.Newly refined crystal structure of the Munc18a–syntaxin1a complex. (A) Munc18a domains 1, 2, and 3 are defined as described (Misura et al, 2000) and coloured blue, green, and yellow, respectively. The H3 SNARE domain of syntaxin is coloured purple, and the regulatory Habc domain and N-terminal peptide are coloured red. The dashed line represents residues 10–26 of syntaxin, which are not visible in the electron density maps. (B) Fo–Fc omit map. Positive electron density is shown in green at a 3.0 σ contour. The syntaxin N-terminal peptide is shown in stick representation in dark salmon, and a symmetry-related peptide in the crystal is shown in light grey. The map was calculated by omitting the peptide during final round of refinement. Download figure Download PowerPoint Table 2. Refinement statistics Refinement Resolution (Å) 33.9–2.6 No. of reflections (work/free) 26 798/2332 Rwork/Rfree 0.203/0.263 No. of atoms Protein 6335 Water 69 Average temperature factors Protein 74.3 Water 51.2 r.m.s.d. Bond lengths (Å) 0.003 Bond angles (deg) 0.67 Ramachandran analysisa Favored regions (%) 95.2 Additional allowed regions (%) 4.4 Outliers (%) 0.4 a From MOLPROBITY (Lovell et al, 2003). The overall structure of the bound syntaxin 1a N-peptide is similar to that of syntaxin 4 bound to Munc18c (Figure 3). In both cases, a short extended structure at the N terminus is followed by a short α helix. As described previously (Hu et al, 2007), the conserved DRT motif appears to stabilize the observed conformation through intramolecular side chain hydrogen bonds between Asp3 and Thr5, and Arg4 and Glu7. However, syntaxin 1a forms only 4 hydrogen bonds and ∼40 van der Waals contacts with Munc18a, whereas syntaxin 4 forms 13 hydrogen bonds and ∼140 van der Waals contacts with Munc18c (Figure 3). This is due, in part, to sequence differences in the peptide-binding site. For example, Asp3 of syntaxin 4 interacts with the side chains of Arg132 and Lys134 of Munc18c; these residues are replaced by threonine in Munc18a, and are not positioned to contact the Asp3 side chain. Also, Glu223 in the α8 loop in domain 2 of Munc18c forms a hydrogen bond with the main-chain nitrogen of Asp3; in Munc18a, the α8 loop is in a different conformation. Figure 3.Comparison of syntaxin N-terminal peptide-binding sites on (A) Munc18a and (B) Munc18c. In each case, the Munc18 homologue is shown in surface representation, with the surface formed by atoms that contact syntaxin coloured orange. Residues that form hydrogen bonds with syntaxin are shown beneath the surface, with the hydrogen bonds shown as dashed lines. In (A), the syntaxin 1A peptide is coloured dark salmon. In (B), the syntaxin 4 is light blue. Residues 10–19, which were only observed in the Munc18c-syntaxin4 structure, are not shown. Note that in (B), Glu233, which is located in the α8 loop and interacts with Asp3, is not shown for clarity. Download figure Download PowerPoint Although sequence differences can explain some of the smaller number of interactions observed between the syntaxin 1a N-peptide and Munc18a relative to syntaxin 4-Munc18c, contacts involving certain conserved residues are also lost or diminished. Most notably, syntaxin 1a Leu8 is not well packed into the hydrophobic pocket formed by residues Phe115, Val119, Ala124, Ile127, and Leu130 of Munc18a. Electron density for the side chain of Leu8 is weak, suggesting that it may be present in multiple conformations. In addition, syntaxin 1a Arg4 is too far from the carbonyl oxygen of Munc18a Cys110 to form the hydrogen bond seen in the syntaxin 4–Munc18c structure. Given the observed differences in the interactions of conserved residues in the syntaxin1a–Munc18a versus syntaxin4–Munc18c, we investigated the contribution of conserved syntaxin 1a N-peptide residues to the affinity of the Munc18a interaction by ITC (Table I). Thr10 is not seen in the structure, and its mutation does not affect binding. On the other hand, mutation of Ser14, which is not seen in the structure, slightly diminishes the interaction. Most notably, mutation of Arg4 or Leu8 to alanine reduces the affinity and enthalpy of the reaction to the same values as complete removal of the peptide, indicating that despite the fewer number of contacts made by these residues, they have essential roles in the Munc18a interaction. These results suggest that the conformation of the syntaxin1A N-peptide in the crystal has been perturbed relative to its Munc18a-bound conformation in solution. Crystal packing interactions between neighbouring syntaxin 1a N-peptides (Figure 2B) could influence the conformation of the peptide, although there is no obvious explanation for why the observed lattice contacts would prevent formation of the predicted syntaxin1a–Munc18a contacts. The more likely reason for the loss of expected contacts comes from the fact that the syntaxin construct used for crystallization bears an N-terminal polyhistidine affinity tag. This construct binds to Munc18a with an affinity intermediate between full-length syntaxin bearing no extra residues at its N terminus and the truncated syntaxin Syx1a (25–262) (see Supplementary data; Supplementary Figure 2), suggesting that the tag partially interferes with peptide binding. In this regard, it should also be noted that we found that thrombin, a protease that is widely used to specifically cleave affinity tags of recombinant proteins, removes the first nine residues of syntaxin 1a, rendering the N-peptide unable to bind to Munc18a. A detailed account of the effect of affinity tags on the syntaxin–Munc18 interaction is provided in the Supplementary data. The effect of the N-terminal affinity tag indicates that a detailed description of the syntaxin 1a N-peptide interaction with Munc18a will require crystallization of a construct with a native N terminus. Nonetheless, the crystallographic data clearly demonstrate that the syntaxin N-peptide interacts with the outer surface of Munc18a domain 1 in a manner similar to other syntaxin–Munc18 pairs, and are consistent with the increases in binding affinity and enthalpy observed in the ITC experiments. Contribution of the three regions of syntaxin 1a to Munc18a interactions The results presented so far indicate that all conserved regions of syntaxin 1a interact with Munc18a: the N-peptide binds to the outer surface of Munc18a domain 1, while the Habc, linker, and H3 regions interact with the concave surface formed by domains 1 and 3a (Misura et al, 2000). Approximately equal numbers of residues from the Habc and H3 domains contribute to the syntaxin 1a–Munc18a interaction. Habc forms an independently folded domain whose structure is essentially unaltered whether free or bound to Munc18a. In contrast, the structure of H3 depends on context, where it is a single helix in the SNARE complex, but three helices interrupted by irregular sections when it is bound to the Habc domain in the closed conformation (Misura et al, 2000). To dissect the energetic contributions of the different portions of the syntaxin cytosolic domain to the Munc18a interaction, the thermodynamics of N- and C-terminal deletion constructs were measured by ITC (Table I). As noted above, removal of the N-peptide reduces the affinity from ∼1 to 8 nM (ΔΔG°=1.2 kcal/mol). If we assume that this peptide binds independently of the remainder of syntaxin, this energy corresponds to a Kd of 130 mM, explaining why no detectable binding of the peptide is observed to either Munc18a or Munc18a–Syx1a (25–262). In contrast, removal of C-terminal sequences has more dramatic effects. Deletion of the C-terminal 36 residues of the SNARE domain (Syx1a (1–226)) weakens the interaction substantially: the Kd changes from 1 to 621 nM, and the binding enthalpy is reduced from −35 to −8 kcal/mol (Table I). Comparable results are obtained when the entire SNARE motif is deleted (Syx1a (1–179), Table I), indicating that Munc18a binds only weakly to the N-terminal region of syntaxin (i.e., the N-peptide+Habc). In agreement with a previous report (Wu et al, 1999), the mutation I233A, which is in the C-terminal section of the H3-domain of syntaxin 1a and directly contacts Munc18a, exhibits a strongly reduced affinity of 333 nM (Table I), corroborating the importance of this region for the strength of the Munc18a–syntaxin 1a interaction. The syntaxin 1a N-peptide is required for Munc18 to bind to the assembled ternary SNARE complex (Dulubova et al, 2007; Shen et al, 2007), but it is less clear which other regions of the SNARE complex contribute to this interaction. ITC experiments confirmed that there is no detectable interaction between Munc18a and the SNARE complex formed with N-terminally truncated syntaxin 1a, Syx1a (25–262). In contrast, the SNARE complex containing Syx1a (1–262) binds to Munc18a, albeit with relatively low affinity (Kd=720 nM, Table I). Importantly, both the affinity and binding enthalpy of the SNARE complex are identical within error to those of the isolated N-terminal region of syntaxin 1a, Syx1a (1–179). This suggests that the N-peptide and Habc domain of syntaxin 1a mediate the binding of Munc18a to the assembled SNARE complex, whereas there is no significant energetic contribution provided by the four-helix bundle region. This is consistent with data demonstrating that the Habc domain is flexibly linked to the H3 domain when the latter is part of the four-helix bundle SNARE complex (Margittai et al, 2003). Role of the N-peptide in controlling SNARE complex assembly To assess the functional effect of the syntaxin N-peptide, we made use of the SDS resistance of assembled neuronal SNARE complexes (Hayashi et al, 1994). When Syx1a (1–262) or Syx1a (25–262) were mixed with SNAP-25 and synaptobrevin, SDS-resistant complexes formed over time. When Munc18a and Syx1a (1–262) were pre-mixed, hardly any SDS-resistant complex was formed upon addition of SNAP-25 and synaptobrevin. In contrast, when Syx1a (25–262) was pre-mixed with Munc18a, a clear SDS-resistant SNARE complex band appeared (Figure 4A and B). Therefore, binding of the syntaxin 1a N-peptide to Munc18a is required to block SNARE complex formation. Earlier studies using syntaxin constructs starting at residue Arg4 also found that Munc18a blocked SNARE assembly (Pevsner et al, 1994; Yang et al, 2000); it is not clear what affinity tag residues preceded Arg4, but apparently they allow the N-peptide to bind (see also Supplementary data). Figure 4.Removal of the N-peptide of syntaxin allows for SNARE complex formation of Munc18-bound syntaxin. (A, B) Assembly of SNARE complexes in the absence or presence of Munc18a was monitored by the formation of SDS-resistant complexes containing synaptobrevin (Syb1–96) labelled with the fluorescent dye Alexa-488 at Cys79. For both syntaxin 1a variants, Syx1a (1–262) and Syx1a (25–262), SNARE complexes formed in the absence of Munc18a. In the presence of Munc18a, however, SNARE complex formation was abolished for Syx1a (1–262) (A), whereas a clear SDS-resistant band was visible for Syx1a (25–262) (B). Note that the SDS-resistant band in the presence of Munc18a appears to be weaker than that in the absence of Munc18a. This might be due to the fact Munc18a, which runs at the same molecular mass as the SDS-resistant SNARE complex, interfered with the intensity of the fluorescent band. (C–E) Ternary SNARE complex formation was followed by the increase in fluorescence anisotropy of 40 nM fluorescent Syb1-96 upon mixing with 500 nM syntaxin 1a and 750 nM SNAP-25. Munc18a (750 nM) inhibited SNARE complex formation for Syx1a (1–262) (B), but not for Syx1a (25–262) (D) and the ‘open’ syntaxin variant SyxLE (E). Note that for Syx1a (25–262) SNARE complex assembly occurred at about similar speed as in the absence of Munc18a. Download figure Download PowerPoint The effect of the N-peptide on SNARE complex formation was investigated more quantitatively using fluorescence-based assays in solution. When a fluorescently labelled cytosolic domain of synaptobrevin 2 was mixed with SNAP-25 and Syx1a (1–262) or Syx1a (25–262) in the absence of Munc18a, an increase in fluorescence anisotropy corresponding to the formation of a ternary SNARE complex was observed. As was seen in the SDS resistance assay, pre-mixing Munc18a with Syx1a (1–262) produced an almost complete block of ternary SNARE complex formation, whereas no inhibition was found when Munc18a and Syx1a (25–262) were pre-mixed (Figure 4C and D). Comparable results were obtained for the binary complex of syntaxin and SNAP-25 believed to be the intermediate in SNARE complex formation: binding of fluorescently labelled SNAP-25 to Syx1a (1–262), but not Syx1a (25–262), was inhibited by Munc18a (Supplementary Figure 3). The importance of the N-peptide in blocking SNARE assembly was also examined using point mutants of Syx1a (1–262) that do or do not significantly affect the affinity of the N-peptide (see above and Table I). Syx1a (T5A) and Syx1a (T10A) blocked SNARE complex formation, whereas Syx1a (R4A) and Syx1a (L8A) allowed formation in the presence of Munc18a (Supplementary Figure 4), albeit with lower efficiency than in the absence of the N-peptide, that is, using Syx1a (25–262). As Syx1a (25–262) binds with high affinity to Munc18a, it is surprising that this interaction does not prevent SNARE complex assembly (Figure 4B and D; Supplementary Figure 3). Therefore, we compared the kinetics of the interaction of Munc18a to syntaxin 1a constructs containing or lacking the N-peptide. Binding of Munc18a to either syntaxin construct is approximately 10 000 times faster than binding of SNAP-25 to syntaxin (Supplementary