Familial exudative vitreoretinopathy (FEVR) is an inherited blinding disorder of the retinal vascular system. Autosomal dominant FEVR is genetically heterogeneous, but its principal locus, EVR1, is on chromosome 11q13-q23. The gene encoding the Wnt receptor frizzled-4 (FZD4) was recently reported to be the EVR1 gene, but our mutation screen revealed fewer patients harboring mutations than expected. Here, we describe mutations in a second gene at the EVR1 locus, low-density-lipoprotein receptor–related protein 5 (LRP5), a Wnt coreceptor. This finding further underlines the significance of Wnt signaling in the vascularization of the eye and highlights the potential dangers of using multiple families to refine genetic intervals in gene-identification studies. Familial exudative vitreoretinopathy (FEVR) is an inherited blinding disorder of the retinal vascular system. Autosomal dominant FEVR is genetically heterogeneous, but its principal locus, EVR1, is on chromosome 11q13-q23. The gene encoding the Wnt receptor frizzled-4 (FZD4) was recently reported to be the EVR1 gene, but our mutation screen revealed fewer patients harboring mutations than expected. Here, we describe mutations in a second gene at the EVR1 locus, low-density-lipoprotein receptor–related protein 5 (LRP5), a Wnt coreceptor. This finding further underlines the significance of Wnt signaling in the vascularization of the eye and highlights the potential dangers of using multiple families to refine genetic intervals in gene-identification studies. Familial exudative vitreoretinopathy (FEVR [MIM 133780]) is a well-defined inherited disorder of retinal vessel development (Benson Benson, 1995Benson WE Familial exudative vitreoretinopathy.Trans Am Ophthalmol Soc. 1995; 93: 473-521PubMed Google Scholar). It is reported to have a penetrance of 100%, but clinical features can be highly variable, even within the same family. Severely affected patients may be legally blind during the 1st decade of life, whereas mildly affected individuals may not even be aware of symptoms and may receive a diagnosis only by use of fluorescein angiography (Ober et al. Ober et al., 1980Ober RR Bird AC Hamilton AM Sehmi K Autosomal dominant exudative vitreoretinopathy.Br J Ophthalmol. 1980; 64: 112-120Crossref PubMed Scopus (77) Google Scholar). The primary pathological process in FEVR is believed to be a premature arrest of retinal angiogenesis/vasculogenesis or retinal vascular differentiation, leading to incomplete vascularization of the peripheral retina (van Nouhuys van Nouhuys, 1991van Nouhuys CE Signs, complications, and platelet aggregation in familial exudative vitreoretinopathy.Am J Ophthalmol. 1991; 111: 34-41PubMed Google Scholar). This failure to vascularize the peripheral retina is the unifying feature seen in all affected individuals, but, by itself, it usually causes no clinical symptoms. The visual problems in FEVR result from secondary complications due to the development of hyperpermeable blood vessels, neovascularization, and vitreoretinal traction (fig. 1). These features cause a reduction in visual acuity and, in 20% of cases, can lead to partial or total retinal detachment (van Nouhuys van Nouhuys, 1991van Nouhuys CE Signs, complications, and platelet aggregation in familial exudative vitreoretinopathy.Am J Ophthalmol. 1991; 111: 34-41PubMed Google Scholar). FEVR is genetically heterogeneous, with autosomal dominant (Gow and Oliver Gow and Oliver, 1971Gow J Oliver GL Familial exudative vitreoretinopathy: an expanded view.Arch Ophthalmol. 1971; 86: 150-155Crossref PubMed Scopus (103) Google Scholar; Laqua Laqua, 1980Laqua H Familial exudative vitreoretinopathy.Albrecht Von Graefes Arch Klin Exp Ophthalmol. 1980; 213: 121-133Crossref PubMed Scopus (48) Google Scholar), X-linked (Plager et al. Plager et al., 1992Plager DA Orgel IK Ellis FD Hartzer M Trese MT Shastry BS X-linked recessive familial exudative vitreoretinopathy.Am J Ophthalmol. 1992; 114: 145-148PubMed Scopus (64) Google Scholar; Shastry et al. Shastry et al., 1997aShastry BS Liu X Hejtmancik JF Plager DA Trese MT Evidence for genetic heterogeneity in X-linked familial exudative vitreoretinopathy.Genomics. 1997a; 44: 247-248Crossref PubMed Scopus (19) Google Scholar), and autosomal recessive (Shastry and Trese Shastry and Trese, 1997bShastry BS Trese MT Familial exudative vitreoretinopathy: further evidence for genetic heterogeneity.Am J Med Genet. 1997b; 69: 217-218Crossref PubMed Scopus (47) Google Scholar; De Crecchio et al. De Crecchio et al., 1998De Crecchio G Simonelli F Nunziata G Mazzeo S Greco GM Rinaldi E Ventruto V Ciccodicola A Miano MG Testa F Curci A D’Urso M Rinaldi MM Cavaliere ML Castelluccio P Autosomal recessive familial exudative vitreoretinopathy: evidence for genetic heterogeneity.Clin Genet. 1998; 54: 315-320Crossref PubMed Scopus (49) Google Scholar) modes of inheritance described, with autosomal dominant inheritance being the most common (Müller et al. Müller et al., 1994Müller B Orth U van Nouhuys CE Duvigneau C Fuhrmann C Schwinger E Laqua H Gal A Mapping of the autosomal dominant exudative vitreoretinopathy locus (EVR1) by multipoint linkage analysis in four families.Genomics. 1994; 20: 317-319Crossref PubMed Scopus (24) Google Scholar; Shastry et al. Shastry et al., 2000Shastry BS Hejtmancik JF Hiraoka M Ibaraki N Okubo Y Okubo A Han DP Trese MT Linkage and candidate gene analysis of autosomal-dominant familial exudative vitreoretinopathy.Clin Genet. 2000; 58: 329-332Crossref PubMed Scopus (15) Google Scholar; Kondo et al. Kondo et al., 2001Kondo H Ohno K Tahira T Hayashi H Oshima K Hayashi K Delineation of the critical interval for the familial exudative vitreoretinopathy gene by linkage and haplotype analysis.Hum Genet. 2001; 108: 368-375Crossref PubMed Scopus (17) Google Scholar). To date, two autosomal dominant loci have been mapped. EVR1 on chromosome 11q was the first FEVR locus to be identified (Li et al. Li et al., 1992aLi Y Fuhrmann C Schwinger E Gal A Laqua H The gene for autosomal dominant exudative vitreoretinopathy (Criswick-Schepens) on the long arm of chromosome 11.Am J Ophthalmol. 1992a; 113: 712-713PubMed Scopus (31) Google Scholar), and, subsequently, other groups have published further families with EVR1 linkage (Li et al. Li et al., 1992bLi Y Müller B Fuhrmann C van Nouhuys CE Laqua H Humphries P Schwinger E Gal A The autosomal dominant familial exudative vitreoretinopathy locus maps on 11q and is closely linked to D11S533.Am J Hum Genet. 1992b; 51: 749-754PubMed Google Scholar; Müller et al. Müller et al., 1994Müller B Orth U van Nouhuys CE Duvigneau C Fuhrmann C Schwinger E Laqua H Gal A Mapping of the autosomal dominant exudative vitreoretinopathy locus (EVR1) by multipoint linkage analysis in four families.Genomics. 1994; 20: 317-319Crossref PubMed Scopus (24) Google Scholar; Price et al. Price et al., 1996Price SM Periam N Humphries A Woodruff G Trembath RC Familial exudative vitreoretinopathy linked to D11S533 in a large Asian family with consanguinity.Ophthalmic Genet. 1996; 17: 53-57Crossref PubMed Scopus (21) Google Scholar; Shastry et al. Shastry et al., 2000Shastry BS Hejtmancik JF Hiraoka M Ibaraki N Okubo Y Okubo A Han DP Trese MT Linkage and candidate gene analysis of autosomal-dominant familial exudative vitreoretinopathy.Clin Genet. 2000; 58: 329-332Crossref PubMed Scopus (15) Google Scholar; Kondo et al. Kondo et al., 2001Kondo H Ohno K Tahira T Hayashi H Oshima K Hayashi K Delineation of the critical interval for the familial exudative vitreoretinopathy gene by linkage and haplotype analysis.Hum Genet. 2001; 108: 368-375Crossref PubMed Scopus (17) Google Scholar), suggesting that mutations at this locus are a common cause of FEVR. A second dominant locus, EVR3 on chromosome 11p, has also been described in a single large pedigree (Downey et al. Downey et al., 2001Downey LM Keen TJ Roberts E Mansfield DC Bamashmus M Inglehearn CF A new locus for autosomal dominant familial exudative vitreoretinopathy maps to chromosome 11p12-13.Am J Hum Genet. 2001; 68: 778-781Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (45) Google Scholar). Although the gene underlying EVR3 remains unidentified, the gene encoding the Wnt receptor frizzled-4, FZD4 (MIM 604579), was recently reported as the EVR1 gene (Robitaille et al. Robitaille et al., 2002Robitaille J MacDonald MLE Kaykas A Sheldahi LC Zeisler J Dube MP Zhang LH Singaraja RR Guernsey DL Zheng B Siebert LF Hoskin-Mott A Trese MT Pimstone SN Shastry BS Moon RT Hayden MR Goldberg YP Samuels ME Mutant frizzled-4 disrupts retinal angiogenesis in familial exudative vitreoretinopathy.Nat Genet. 2002; 32: 326-330Crossref PubMed Scopus (363) Google Scholar). Following the identification of FZD4 mutations in patients with FEVR, we screened an FEVR patient panel of 40 index cases for mutations in this gene. Although we did find mutations, confirming the results of Robitaille et al. (Robitaille et al., 2002Robitaille J MacDonald MLE Kaykas A Sheldahi LC Zeisler J Dube MP Zhang LH Singaraja RR Guernsey DL Zheng B Siebert LF Hoskin-Mott A Trese MT Pimstone SN Shastry BS Moon RT Hayden MR Goldberg YP Samuels ME Mutant frizzled-4 disrupts retinal angiogenesis in familial exudative vitreoretinopathy.Nat Genet. 2002; 32: 326-330Crossref PubMed Scopus (363) Google Scholar), these were identified in only eight (20%) patients (Toomes et al., Toomes et al., in pressToomes C, Bottomley HM, Scott S, Mackey DA, Craig JE, Appukuttan B, Stout JT, Zhang K, Black GCM, Fryer A, Downey LM, Inglehearn CF. Spectrum and frequency of FZD4 mutations in familial exudative vitreoretinopathy (FEVR). Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci (in press)Google Scholar). A similar low number of mutations was reported by Robitaille et al. (Robitaille et al., 2002Robitaille J MacDonald MLE Kaykas A Sheldahi LC Zeisler J Dube MP Zhang LH Singaraja RR Guernsey DL Zheng B Siebert LF Hoskin-Mott A Trese MT Pimstone SN Shastry BS Moon RT Hayden MR Goldberg YP Samuels ME Mutant frizzled-4 disrupts retinal angiogenesis in familial exudative vitreoretinopathy.Nat Genet. 2002; 32: 326-330Crossref PubMed Scopus (363) Google Scholar), who identified mutations in two (40%) of the five families they screened, and a recent study by Kondo et al. (Kondo et al., 2003Kondo H Hayashi H Oshima K Tahira T Hayashi K Frizzled 4 gene (FZD4) mutations in patients with familial exudative vitreoretinopathy with variable expressivity.Br J Ophthalmol. 2003; 87: 1291-1295Crossref PubMed Scopus (85) Google Scholar) also identified mutations in only 5 (20%) of 24 probands screened. These results are inconsistent with previous reports suggesting that EVR1 is the common locus for autosomal dominant FEVR (Müller et al. Müller et al., 1994Müller B Orth U van Nouhuys CE Duvigneau C Fuhrmann C Schwinger E Laqua H Gal A Mapping of the autosomal dominant exudative vitreoretinopathy locus (EVR1) by multipoint linkage analysis in four families.Genomics. 1994; 20: 317-319Crossref PubMed Scopus (24) Google Scholar; Price et al. Price et al., 1996Price SM Periam N Humphries A Woodruff G Trembath RC Familial exudative vitreoretinopathy linked to D11S533 in a large Asian family with consanguinity.Ophthalmic Genet. 1996; 17: 53-57Crossref PubMed Scopus (21) Google Scholar; Shastry et al. Shastry et al., 2000Shastry BS Hejtmancik JF Hiraoka M Ibaraki N Okubo Y Okubo A Han DP Trese MT Linkage and candidate gene analysis of autosomal-dominant familial exudative vitreoretinopathy.Clin Genet. 2000; 58: 329-332Crossref PubMed Scopus (15) Google Scholar; Kondo et al. Kondo et al., 2001Kondo H Ohno K Tahira T Hayashi H Oshima K Hayashi K Delineation of the critical interval for the familial exudative vitreoretinopathy gene by linkage and haplotype analysis.Hum Genet. 2001; 108: 368-375Crossref PubMed Scopus (17) Google Scholar). Moreover, our screen also revealed the absence of a mutation in a family with proven EVR1 linkage (Price et al. Price et al., 1996Price SM Periam N Humphries A Woodruff G Trembath RC Familial exudative vitreoretinopathy linked to D11S533 in a large Asian family with consanguinity.Ophthalmic Genet. 1996; 17: 53-57Crossref PubMed Scopus (21) Google Scholar). To investigate this family further, we analyzed the linked haplotype in the EVR1 region of chromosome 11q13, and we found that crossovers refined the disease gene in this family to an interval of ∼15 cM between the markers D11S1368 and D11S937, 10 cM centromeric to FZD4. These data strongly suggested the presence of a second gene mutated in FEVR, close to FZD4 and within the previously defined EVR1 locus (Toomes et al. Toomes et al., 2004Toomes C Downey LM Bottomley HM Scott S Woodruff G Trembath RC Inglehearn CF Identification of a fourth locus (EVR4) for familial exudative vitreoretinopathy (FEVR).Mol Vis. 2004; 10: 37-42PubMed Google Scholar). Despite the fact that >250 genes are located within the defined interval, the discovery that FEVR can be caused by mutations in the Wnt receptor FZD4 highlighted proteins involved in the Wnt-signaling pathway as candidate FEVR genes (for an up-to-date list of all the proteins involved in Wnt signaling, see the Wnt Gene Homepage maintained by the Roel Nusse lab). We identified LRP5 (MIM 603506) as one such candidate gene in the region. LRP5 and its closely related homologue LRP6 encode single-pass transmembrane receptors that partner with members of the frizzled family of seven-pass transmembrane receptors to bind Wnt proteins, forming a functional ligand-receptor complex that activates the canonical Wnt-β-catenin pathway (Pinson et al. Pinson et al., 2000Pinson KI Brennan J Monkley S Avery BJ Skames WC An LDL receptor-related protein mediates Wnt signalling in mice.Nature. 2000; 407: 535-538Crossref PubMed Scopus (844) Google Scholar; Tamai et al. Tamai et al., 2000Tamai K Semenov M Kato Y Spokony R Liu C Katsuyama Y Hess F Saint-Jeannet JP He X LDL-receptor-related proteins in Wnt signal transduction.Nature. 2000; 407: 530-535Crossref PubMed Scopus (1036) Google Scholar; Wehrli et al. Wehrli et al., 2000Wehrli M Dougan ST Caldwell K O’Keefe L Schwartz S Vaizel-Ohayon D Schejter E Tomlinson A DiNardo S Arrow encodes an LDL-receptor-related protein essential for Wingless signalling.Nature. 2000; 407: 527-530Crossref PubMed Scopus (695) Google Scholar). LRP5 consists of 23 exons and encodes a 1,615–amino acid protein. Its extracellular segment contains four domains, each composed of six YWTD repeats (which form a β-propeller structure) and an epidermal growth factor–like domain (YWTD-EGF domain). These are followed by three low-density-lipoprotein receptor–like (LDL-R–like) ligand-binding domains (fig. 2). The specific function of LRP5 remains unknown, but loss of this protein causes osteoporosis-pseudoglioma syndrome (OPPG [MIM 259770]), a recessive disorder characterized by very low bone mass and blindness (Gong et al. Gong et al., 2001Gong Y Slee RB Fukai N Rawadi G Roman-Roman S Reginato AM Wang H et al.LDL receptor-related protein 5 (LRP5) affects bone accrual and eye development.Cell. 2001; 107: 513-523Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (1688) Google Scholar). Individuals with OPPG are prone to developing bone fractures and deformations and can have various eye abnormalities, including phthisis bulbi, retinal detachments, falciform folds, or persistent vitreal vasculature (Frontali et al. Frontali et al., 1985Frontali M Stomeo C Dallapiccola Osteoporosis-pseudoglioma syndrome: report of three affected sibs and an overview.Am J Med Genet. 1985; 22: 35-47Crossref PubMed Scopus (43) Google Scholar). Dominant missense mutations in LRP5 have also been described in patients with high-bone-mass disorders (high bone mass [MIM 601884], endosteal hyperostosis [MIM 144750], and osteopetrosis [MIM 607634]) (Boyden et al. Boyden et al., 2002Boyden LM Mao J Belsky J Mitzner L Farhi A Mitnick MA Wu D Insogna K Lifton RP High bone density due to a mutation in LDL-receptor-related protein 5.N Engl J Med. 2002; 346: 1513-1521Crossref PubMed Scopus (1263) Google Scholar; Little et al. Little et al., 2002Little RD Carulli JP Del Mastro RG Dupuis J Osborne M Folz C Manning SP et al.A mutation in the LDL receptor–related protein 5 gene results in the autosomal dominant high–bone-mass trait.Am J Hum Genet. 2002; 70: 11-19Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (989) Google Scholar; Van Wesenbeeck et al. Van Wesenbeeck et al., 2003Van Wesenbeeck L Cleiren E Gram J Beals RK Bénichou O Scopelliti D Key L Renton T Bartels C Gong Y Warman ML de Vernejoul M-C Bollerslev J Van Hul W Six novel missense mutations in the LDL receptor-related protein 5 (LRP5) gene in different conditions with an increased bone density.Am J Hum Genet. 2003; 72: 763-771Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (457) Google Scholar). It is thought that these missense mutations result in the formation of a mutant LRP5 protein that is functionally abnormal (Boyden et al. Boyden et al., 2002Boyden LM Mao J Belsky J Mitzner L Farhi A Mitnick MA Wu D Insogna K Lifton RP High bone density due to a mutation in LDL-receptor-related protein 5.N Engl J Med. 2002; 346: 1513-1521Crossref PubMed Scopus (1263) Google Scholar). In light of these findings, LRP5 was a strong candidate for involvement in FEVR and was therefore screened in the remaining 32 patients from our FEVR patient panel. Informed consent was obtained from all subjects tested, and ethical approval was obtained from the Leeds Teaching Hospitals Trust research ethics committee. We designed primers (table 1) and screened all 23 exons and flanking intronic sequences by SSCP-heteroduplex analysis (SSCP-HA) and direct sequencing, using established protocols (Toomes et al. Toomes et al., 2001Toomes C Marchbank NJ Mackey DA Craig JE Newbury-Ecob RA Bennett CP Vize CJ Desai SP Black GCM Patel N Teimory M Markham AF Inglehearn CF Churchill AJ Spectrum, frequency and penetrance of OPA1 mutations in dominant optic atrophy.Hum Mol Genet. 2001; 10: 1369-1378Crossref PubMed Scopus (126) Google Scholar). In total, we discovered six LRP5 mutations not present in control individuals (figs. Figure 2, Figure 3) and a further 13 benign sequence variants not previously described (table 2).Table 1LRP5 SSCP-HA PrimersExonaLarge exons were amplified in two overlapping segments, designated “start” and “end.”Primer Name5′→3′ SequencePrimer Name5′→3′ SequenceSize (bp)1A1FbPrimer sequences obtained from Gong et al. (2001).TTCCGCTCCCGCGCGCCCAGCT1R2bPrimer sequences obtained from Gong et al. (2001).GCGGGGCCGCCCGGGCCATT3112 start2FbPrimer sequences obtained from Gong et al. (2001).CATCCCAGGGCTGTGTATCTSSCP 2-RGTGATGACCACGTTCTGCAC2882 endSSCP 2-FCAAGCAGACCTACCTGAACC2RbPrimer sequences obtained from Gong et al. (2001).ACTTGGGCTCATGCAAATTC3093 start3F3bPrimer sequences obtained from Gong et al. (2001).GAAACCATACCTGTTGGTTATTTCCSSCP 3-RGGATGAAGCTGAGCTTGGCGTC3113 endSSCP 3-FCGGATTGAGCGGGCAGGGAT3R3bPrimer sequences obtained from Gong et al. (2001).CACAGACCCTGACGCTGTTC32344F4bPrimer sequences obtained from Gong et al. (2001).GATGGCTCCTCCACCCCGCT4R5bPrimer sequences obtained from Gong et al. (2001).GCGCCCCAGCCGGCACT25055F3bPrimer sequences obtained from Gong et al. (2001).CTCATTCAGAAACAAGTGACGGTCCTC5R4bPrimer sequences obtained from Gong et al. (2001).GTCCCGTCCCACCGCCT2166 start6F1bPrimer sequences obtained from Gong et al. (2001).TGGCTGAGTATTTCCCTTGCCCSSCP 6-RGTCGACCGCGATGCCATCGG3526 endSSCP 6-FCGACCCGCTAGAGGGCTATGTSSCP 6-2RCAATCTCCCTCTCGCCTGTGC33877FbPrimer sequences obtained from Gong et al. (2001).GATGCTGCAGAGACCAGACA7R2bPrimer sequences obtained from Gong et al. (2001).TAACTATTTTCTCAAGCATTCCATGT3668 start8F1bPrimer sequences obtained from Gong et al. (2001).TGAAGTTGCTGCTCTTGGGCASSCP 8-RCACCCGCTCGATGCTGCGGC2568 endSSCP 8-FCGCACATTTTCGGGTTCACGC8R1bPrimer sequences obtained from Gong et al. (2001).AACACTTATGCCCAGGCATGGA2529 start9F1bPrimer sequences obtained from Gong et al. (2001).TGCTGGGCTGTTGATGTTTAGACTSSCP 9-RCCGTGAGCGGGATGGCCACG2639 endSSCP 9-FGTGCCTGAGGCCTTCTTGGTCT9R1bPrimer sequences obtained from Gong et al. (2001).CTTGAACTGCGTTACAATAAATACGA2911010F1bPrimer sequences obtained from Gong et al. (2001).GATGCTGGTTCCTAAAATGTGG10RbPrimer sequences obtained from Gong et al. (2001).GCTCTAATCACTGAGGGCCA3861111F1bPrimer sequences obtained from Gong et al. (2001).GAGGGCTGAGCTGAAGAGGT11R1bPrimer sequences obtained from Gong et al. (2001).CAGGTTGGGGAACTTGCAG39812 start12FbPrimer sequences obtained from Gong et al. (2001).ATTCATGTGGTCGCTAGGCTSSCP 12-RCATCACGAAGTCCAGGTGG28112 endSSCP 12-FCTAGCGGCCGGAACCGCA12RbPrimer sequences obtained from Gong et al. (2001).GAAGCTCCTTTCAGCGTCAG2871313FbPrimer sequences obtained from Gong et al. (2001).CCAGCTCCTCTGTGGCTTAC13RbPrimer sequences obtained from Gong et al. (2001).TCCTCCCTCTGCTAAGGACA35214SSCP 14-FGTCTCCGCCAGTGCTCAGSSCP 14-RCTGTGAGAGGCTGGCATTC33415SSCP 15-FGTGCTGTCCGAGGAGACGC15R2bPrimer sequences obtained from Gong et al. (2001).TTACTGACAATGAAGGCCGGGT3051616F1bPrimer sequences obtained from Gong et al. (2001).AAGCTGAGTGTGGGGCAAGTTCSSCP 16-RCCACACAGGATCTTGCACTGG3611717FbPrimer sequences obtained from Gong et al. (2001).CATGAGTTCTCATTTGGCCC17RbPrimer sequences obtained from Gong et al. (2001).GCCACAGGGACTGTGATTTT32118SSCP 18-FGGCTGCGTGTGATGTTCTC18RbPrimer sequences obtained from Gong et al. (2001).CAGAGCCCCTACTCCTGTGA3711919FbPrimer sequences obtained from Gong et al. (2001).CCAGACCTTGGTTGCTGTG19RbPrimer sequences obtained from Gong et al. (2001).CGTCTCCTCCCCTAAACTCC2692020NFbPrimer sequences obtained from Gong et al. (2001).ATGTTGGCCACCTCTTTCTG20NRbPrimer sequences obtained from Gong et al. (2001).CTGCCTCCTCCAGATCATTC3102121FbPrimer sequences obtained from Gong et al. (2001).GAGTCTCGTGGGTAGTGGGASSCP 21-RAGAAAGCAAGCATGCCTCAGAG37322S22FbPrimer sequences obtained from Gong et al. (2001).GGAGGAAGGAAGGAATGCCC22RbPrimer sequences obtained from Gong et al. (2001).GCCCACTAGCACCCAGAATA27223SSCP 23-FCGGATGTGCCTACCGAATCSSCP 23-RTTACAGGGGCACAGAGAAGC347a Large exons were amplified in two overlapping segments, designated “start” and “end.”b Primer sequences obtained from Gong et al. (Gong et al., 2001Gong Y Slee RB Fukai N Rawadi G Roman-Roman S Reginato AM Wang H et al.LDL receptor-related protein 5 (LRP5) affects bone accrual and eye development.Cell. 2001; 107: 513-523Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (1688) Google Scholar). Open table in a new tab Table 2Summary of Novel Benign Sequence Variants Detected in LRP5LocationcDNA ChangeProtein ChangeFrequencyExon 2324C→GV108VC 98%; G 2%Intron 2488+53t→c…t 52%; c 48%Exon 3639C→TD213DC 98%; T 2%Intron 3686+61c→t…c 99%; t 1%Intron 81801+62 c→t…c 99%; t 1%Intron 112503+37 c→t…c 99%; t 1%Intron 112503+78 g→a…g 52%; a 48%Exon 183918G→AA1306AG 99%; A 1%Intron 204348+13a→g…a 99%; g 1%Exon 214380C→TS1460SC 98%; T 2%Exon 214431C→TH1477HC 98%; T 2%Intron 214488+54c→a…c 99%; a 1%Intron 214488+58g→a…g 98%; a 2%Exon 224574T→CV1525AT 99%; C 1%Note.—Amino acid and nucleotide numbering follows the cDNA sequence, with nucleotide position 1 assigned to the first nucleotide of the ATG initiation codon in exon 1. Bases in exons are denoted by uppercase letters, bases in introns by lowercase letters. (NCBI assay ID numbers for these SNPs appear in the dbSNP entry of the “Electronic-Database Information” section.) Open table in a new tab Note.— Amino acid and nucleotide numbering follows the cDNA sequence, with nucleotide position 1 assigned to the first nucleotide of the ATG initiation codon in exon 1. Bases in exons are denoted by uppercase letters, bases in introns by lowercase letters. (NCBI assay ID numbers for these SNPs appear in the dbSNP entry of the “Electronic-Database Information” section.) We first identified a splice-donor mutation that segregated with FEVR in the family with EVR1 linkage in which FZD4 mutations had been excluded by genetics (fig. 3B). This mutation is a substitution of the second nucleotide of intron 21, changing the GT splice-donor site to GG, c4488+2t→g. The precise effect of this mutation has not been determined in this family, since no RNA was available. However, the most common outcome of splice-donor mutations is the deletion of the preceding exon. This would lead to the deletion of exon 21, resulting in a frameshift after codon 1449, followed by 52 incorrect amino acids and a premature termination at codon 1502. In a second family originating from the United States, we identified a 1-bp insertion in exon 20, c4119-4120insC. This mutation segregates with the disease in that family but was also found in two asymptomatic family members (fig. 3B). However, neither of these individuals had been examined by fluorescein angiography to exclude a very mild phenotype, so their undiagnosed condition was not unexpected (Ober et al. Ober et al., 1980Ober RR Bird AC Hamilton AM Sehmi K Autosomal dominant exudative vitreoretinopathy.Br J Ophthalmol. 1980; 64: 112-120Crossref PubMed Scopus (77) Google Scholar). This mutation causes a frameshift resulting in 175 incorrect amino acids after codon 1373, followed by a premature termination at codon 1549 (K1374fsX1549). The third mutation identified was a 1-bp deletion in exon 18, c3804delA, in a single Indian patient. This mutation causes a frameshift resulting in the substitution of 168 amino acids after codon 1269 and a premature stop in codon 1438 (R1270fsX1438). The remaining three potential mutations were missense changes. In exon 3, we identified T173M (c518C→T) in an elderly British woman with abnormal retinal vasculature and retinal folds. In exon 16, we identified Y1168H (c3502T→C) in a British woman with a total retinal detachment and retinoschisis. The patient was born after 36 wk of pregnancy but was never treated with oxygen therapy. The patient had no family history of FEVR, although the patient’s asymptomatic father was also found to have the mutation. The final mutation, C1361G (c4081T→G), was identified in exon 19 in a 6-year-old Australian boy with classic features of FEVR. This patient has very poor vision and has undergone surgery on his left eye, which is phthisical and sunken. There is no family history of FEVR, but, again, the asymptomatic mother was found to have the mutation. Neither of the asymptomatic parents had been examined by fluorescein angiography, but they showed no signs of retinopathy upon fundus examination. To exclude the possibility that these changes were common polymorphisms, we screened 200 ethnically matched control individuals (400 chromosomes) for each of these changes (Collins and Schwartz Collins and Schwartz, 2002Collins JS Schwartz CE Detecting polymorphisms and mutations in candidate genes.Am J Hum Genet. 2002; 71: 1251-1252Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (112) Google Scholar). We also checked each of the mutated amino acids for conservation within homologues of LRP5 from human and other species (fig. 3C). Both Y1168H and C1361G are changes to highly conserved residues. T173M is not well conserved, although the methionine residue at this position is not seen in any FZD4 homologue in another species. Whereas these results suggest that these missense changes are indeed pathogenic, without further examination by means of a functional assay, we are unable to prove categorically that they are disease-causing mutations. On the basis of these results, we propose that FEVR results from heterozygous mutations that cause haploinsufficiency of LRP5. The insertion, deletion, and splicing mutations all lead to transcripts with premature termination, which are likely to be targeted by nonsense-mediated decay. Similar mutations, when homozygous, cause OPPG. Indeed, c3804delA has been reported elsewhere as a homozygous mutation in a patient with OPPG (Gong et al. Gong et al., 2001Gong Y Slee RB Fukai N Rawadi G Roman-Roman S Reginato AM Wang H et al.LDL receptor-related protein 5 (LRP5) affects bone accrual and eye development.Cell. 2001; 107: 513-523Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (1688) Google Scholar). It is therefore likely that the missense mutations identified also knock out the function of LRP5. In support of this theory, the C1361G mutation, which affects the fifth cysteine within the third LDL-R–like ligand-binding domain, is an invariant cysteine required to form a disulfide bond necessary for correct protein folding (Bieri et al. Bieri et al., 1995Bieri S Djordjevic JT Daly NL Smith R Kroon PA Disulfide bridges of a cysteine-rich repeat of the LDL receptor ligand-binding domain.Biochemistry. 1995; 34: 13059-13065Crossref PubMed Scopus (50) Google Scholar; Fass et al. Fass et al., 1997Fass D Blacklow S Kim PS Berger JM Molecular basis of familial hypercholesterolaemia from structure of LDL receptor module.Nature. 1997; 388: 691-693Crossref PubMed Scopus (292) Google Scholar). The remaining two missense mutations identified in patients with FEVR occur within the first and fourth YWTD-EGF domains (fig. 2). To determine the functional significance of these mutations, we constructed a model of the YWTD-EGF domain 1 of LRP5 based on the crystal structure of the YWTD-EGF domain of the LDL-R (Rudenko et al. Rudenko et al., 2002Rudenko G Henry L Henderson K Ichtchenko K Brown MS Goldstein JL Deisenhofer J Structure of the LDL receptor extracellular domain at endosomal pH.Science. 2002; 298: 2353-2358Crossref PubMed Scopus (356) Google Scholar). To construct the model, the sequences of the four YWTD-EGF domains of LRP5 were aligned with the LDL-R sequence taken from the Protein Data Bank entry 1n7d (chain A), through use of the multiple-sequence-alignment program ClustalW (Chenna et al. Chenna et al., 2003Chenna R Sugawara H Koike T Lopez R Gibson TJ Higgins DG Thompson JD Multiple sequence alignment with the Clustal series of programs.Nucleic Acids Res. 2003; 31: 3497-3500Crossref PubMed Scopus (3892) Google Sc