Damage to human skin due to ultraviolet light from the sun (photoaging) and damage occurring as a consequence of the passage of time (chronologic or natural aging) are considered to be distinct entities. Photoaging is caused in part by damage to skin connective tissue by increased elaboration of collagen-degrading matrix metalloproteinases, and by reduced collagen synthesis. As matrix metalloproteinase levels are known to rise in fibroblasts as a function of age, and as oxidant stress is believed to underlie changes associated with both photoaging and natural aging, we determined whether natural skin aging, like photoaging, gives rise to increased matrix metalloproteinases and reduced collagen synthesis. In addition, we determined whether topical vitamin A (retinol) could stimulate new collagen deposition in sun-protected aged skin, as it does in photoaged skin. Sun-protected skin samples were obtained from 72 individuals in four age groups: 18–29 y, 30–59 y, 60–79 y, and 80+ y. Histologic and cellular markers of connective tissue abnormalities were significantly elevated in the 60–79 y and 80+ y groups, compared with the two younger age groups. Increased matrix metalloproteinase levels and decreased collagen synthesis/expression were associated with this connective tissue damage. In a separate group of 53 individuals (80+ y of age), topical application of 1% vitamin A for 7 d increased fibroblast growth and collagen synthesis, and concomitantly reduced the levels of matrix-degrading matrix metalloproteinases. Our findings indicate that naturally aged, sun-protected skin and photoaged skin share important molecular features including connective tissue damage, elevated matrix metalloproteinase levels, and reduced collagen production. In addition, vitamin A treatment reduces matrix metalloproteinase expression and stimulates collagen synthesis in naturally aged, sun-protected skin, as it does in photoaged skin. Damage to human skin due to ultraviolet light from the sun (photoaging) and damage occurring as a consequence of the passage of time (chronologic or natural aging) are considered to be distinct entities. Photoaging is caused in part by damage to skin connective tissue by increased elaboration of collagen-degrading matrix metalloproteinases, and by reduced collagen synthesis. As matrix metalloproteinase levels are known to rise in fibroblasts as a function of age, and as oxidant stress is believed to underlie changes associated with both photoaging and natural aging, we determined whether natural skin aging, like photoaging, gives rise to increased matrix metalloproteinases and reduced collagen synthesis. In addition, we determined whether topical vitamin A (retinol) could stimulate new collagen deposition in sun-protected aged skin, as it does in photoaged skin. Sun-protected skin samples were obtained from 72 individuals in four age groups: 18–29 y, 30–59 y, 60–79 y, and 80+ y. Histologic and cellular markers of connective tissue abnormalities were significantly elevated in the 60–79 y and 80+ y groups, compared with the two younger age groups. Increased matrix metalloproteinase levels and decreased collagen synthesis/expression were associated with this connective tissue damage. In a separate group of 53 individuals (80+ y of age), topical application of 1% vitamin A for 7 d increased fibroblast growth and collagen synthesis, and concomitantly reduced the levels of matrix-degrading matrix metalloproteinases. Our findings indicate that naturally aged, sun-protected skin and photoaged skin share important molecular features including connective tissue damage, elevated matrix metalloproteinase levels, and reduced collagen production. In addition, vitamin A treatment reduces matrix metalloproteinase expression and stimulates collagen synthesis in naturally aged, sun-protected skin, as it does in photoaged skin. activation protein-1 matrix metalloproteinases matrix metalloproteinase-1 (interstitial collagenase) matrix metalloproteinase-2 (72 kDa gelatinase, gelatinase A) matrix metalloproteinase-9 (92 kDa gelatinase, gelatinase B) Skin becomes thin, dry, pale, and finely wrinkled with the passage of time (Smith et al., 1962Smith J.G. Davidson E.A. Clark W.M. Alterations in human dermal connective tissue with age and chronic sun damage.J Invest Dermatol. 1962; 39: 347-356Crossref PubMed Scopus (245) Google Scholar;Lavker, 1979Lavker R.M. Structural alterations in exposed and unexposed aged skin.J Invest Dermatol. 1979; 73: 559-566Crossref Scopus (378) Google Scholar,Lavker, 1995Lavker R.M. Cutaneous aging: chronologic versus photoaging.in: Gilchrest B.A. Photoaging. Blackwell Science, Cambridge, MA1995: 123-135Google Scholar;West, 1994West M.D. The cellular and molecular biology of skin aging.Arch Dermatol. 1994; 130: 87-92Crossref PubMed Scopus (141) Google Scholar). In aging skin, the normal stages of epidermal differentiation are preserved, but epidermal thinning, associated with decreased numbers of keratinocytes, is observed histologically. The dermis also thins in aging skin, the result of reduction in the amount and organization of connective tissue (Smith et al., 1962Smith J.G. Davidson E.A. Clark W.M. Alterations in human dermal connective tissue with age and chronic sun damage.J Invest Dermatol. 1962; 39: 347-356Crossref PubMed Scopus (245) Google Scholar;Lavker, 1979Lavker R.M. Structural alterations in exposed and unexposed aged skin.J Invest Dermatol. 1979; 73: 559-566Crossref Scopus (378) Google Scholar,Lavker, 1995Lavker R.M. Cutaneous aging: chronologic versus photoaging.in: Gilchrest B.A. Photoaging. Blackwell Science, Cambridge, MA1995: 123-135Google Scholar). Skin connective tissue is comprised primarily of fibrillar collagen bundles and elastic fibers, along with a complex array of proteoglycans and other extracellular matrix molecules. Dermal fibroblasts are imbedded within the matrix (Wenstrup et al., 1991Wenstrup R.J. Murad S. Pinnell S.R. Collagen.in: Goldsmith L.A. Physiology Biochemistry and Molecular Biology of the Skin. Oxford University Press, New York1991: 481-508Google Scholar). Collagen and elastin impart strength and resiliency to skin, and their degeneration with aging causes skin to become fragile, with easy bruising and loss of youthful appearance. Ultraviolet (UV) irradiation from the sun damages human skin and causes premature skin aging (photoaging) (Kligman, 1969Kligman A.M. Early destructive effects of sunlight on human skin.JAMA. 1969; 210: 2377-2380Crossref PubMed Scopus (328) Google Scholar). Clinically, photoaged skin differs from sun-protected, naturally aged skin by having a thickened and rough appearance, with course wrinkles and mottled pigmentation. A hallmark of photoaged skin (not seen in sun-protected aged skin) is the presence of amorphous elastotic material (Lavker, 1995Lavker R.M. Cutaneous aging: chronologic versus photoaging.in: Gilchrest B.A. Photoaging. Blackwell Science, Cambridge, MA1995: 123-135Google Scholar). Damage to the collagen bundles that constitute the bulk (90% wet weight) of skin connective tissue is another prominent feature of photoaged skin. We have shown that UV irradiation induces synthesis of matrix metalloproteinases (MMP) in human skin in vivo (Fisher et al., 1996Fisher G.J. Datta S.C. Talwar H.S. Wang Z.Q. Varani J. Kang S. Voorhees J.J. The molecular basis of sun-induced premature skin ageing and retinoid antagonism.Nature. 1996; 379: 335-338Crossref PubMed Scopus (1197) Google Scholar,Fisher et al., 1997Fisher G.J. Wang Z.Q. Datta S.C. Varani J. Kang S. Voorhees J.J. Pathophysiology of premature skin aging induced by ultraviolet light.N Engl J Med. 1997; 337: 1419-1428Crossref PubMed Scopus (1165) Google Scholar). We have proposed that MMP-mediated collagen destruction accounts, in large part, for the connective tissue damage that occurs in photoaging. In addition, we have reported that collagen synthesis is reduced in photoaged human skin (Griffiths et al., 1993Griffiths C.E.M. Russman G. Majmudar G. Singer R.S. Hamilton T.A. Voorhees J.J. Restoration of collagen formation in photodamaged human skin by tretinoin (retinoic acid).N Engl J Med. 1993; 329: 530-534Crossref PubMed Scopus (411) Google Scholar;Talwar et al., 1995Talwar H. Griffiths C.E.M. Fisher G.J. Hamilton T.A. Voorhees J.J. Reduced type I and type III procollagens in photodamaged adult human skin.J Invest Dermatol. 1995; 105: 285-291Crossref PubMed Scopus (307) Google Scholar). Traditionally, differences rather than similarities between naturally aged and photoaged skin have been emphasized (Smith et al., 1962Smith J.G. Davidson E.A. Clark W.M. Alterations in human dermal connective tissue with age and chronic sun damage.J Invest Dermatol. 1962; 39: 347-356Crossref PubMed Scopus (245) Google Scholar;Lavker, 1979Lavker R.M. Structural alterations in exposed and unexposed aged skin.J Invest Dermatol. 1979; 73: 559-566Crossref Scopus (378) Google Scholar,Lavker, 1995Lavker R.M. Cutaneous aging: chronologic versus photoaging.in: Gilchrest B.A. Photoaging. Blackwell Science, Cambridge, MA1995: 123-135Google Scholar). We envisioned, however, that collagen damage in natural aging may arise, as it does in photoaging, from elevated MMP expression with a concomitant reduction in collagen synthesis; this was because: (i) both types of skin aging display prominent connective tissue damage; (ii) dermal fibroblasts from aged skin display increased levels of collagenase (Millis et al., 1989Millis A.J. Sottile T.J. Hoyle M. Mann D.M. Diemer V. Collagenase production by early and late passage cultures of human fibroblasts.Exp Gerontol. 1989; 24: 559-575Crossref PubMed Scopus (36) Google Scholar,Millis et al., 1992Millis A.J. Hoyle T.M. McCue H.M. Martini H. Differential expression of metalloproteinase and tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase genes in aged human fibroblasts.Exp Cell Res. 1992; 201: 373-379Crossref PubMed Scopus (223) Google Scholar;West et al., 1989West M.D. Pereira-Smith O. Smith J.R. Replicative senescence of human skin fibroblasts correlates with a loss of regulation and overexpression of collagenase activity.Exp Cell Res. 1989; 184: 138-147Crossref PubMed Scopus (216) Google Scholar;Burke et al., 1994Burke E.M. Horton W.E. Pearson J.D. Crow T.M. Martin G.R. Altered transcriptional regulation of human interstitial collagenase in cultured skin fibroblasts from older donors.Exp Gerontol. 1994; 29: 37-53Crossref PubMed Scopus (44) Google Scholar;Bizot-Foulon et al., 1995Bizot-Foulon V. Bouchard B. Hornebeck W. Dubertret L. Bertaux B. Uncoordinate expressions of type I and III collagens, collagenase and tissue inhibitor of matrix metalloproteinase 1 along the in vitro proliferative lifespan of human skin fibroblasts: regulation by all-trans retinoic acid.Cell Biol Int. 1995; 19: 129-135Crossref PubMed Scopus (45) Google Scholar;Ricciarelli et al., 1999Ricciarelli R. Maroni P. Ozer N. Zingg J.M. Azzi A. Age-dependent increase of collagenase expression can be reduced by α-tocopherol via protein kinase C inhibition.Free Radic Biol Med. 1999; 27: 729-737Crossref PubMed Scopus (156) Google Scholar); and (iii) oxidant stress is thought to play a key part in both photoaging (Brenneisen et al., 1998Brenneisen P. Wenk J. Klotz L.O. et al.Central role of ferrous/ferric iron in the ultraviolet B irradiation-mediated signaling pathway leading to increased interstitial collagenase (MMP-1) and stromelysin-1 (MMP-3) mRNA levels in cultured human dermal fibroblasts.J Biol Chem. 1998; 273: 5279-5287Crossref PubMed Scopus (196) Google Scholar) and natural aging (Sohal and Weindruch, 1996Sohal R.S. Weindruch R. Oxidative stress, caloric restriction and aging.Science. 1996; 273: 59-63Crossref PubMed Scopus (2625) Google Scholar). In this study we report that with increasing age, MMP levels are increased and collagen synthesis is decreased in sun-protected human skin in vivo. Furthermore, we find that vitamin A (retinol), which inhibits UV induction of MMP (Fisher et al., 1996Fisher G.J. Datta S.C. Talwar H.S. Wang Z.Q. Varani J. Kang S. Voorhees J.J. The molecular basis of sun-induced premature skin ageing and retinoid antagonism.Nature. 1996; 379: 335-338Crossref PubMed Scopus (1197) Google Scholar,Fisher et al., 1997Fisher G.J. Wang Z.Q. Datta S.C. Varani J. Kang S. Voorhees J.J. Pathophysiology of premature skin aging induced by ultraviolet light.N Engl J Med. 1997; 337: 1419-1428Crossref PubMed Scopus (1165) Google Scholar) and stimulates collagen synthesis in photoaged skin (Griffiths et al., 1993Griffiths C.E.M. Russman G. Majmudar G. Singer R.S. Hamilton T.A. Voorhees J.J. Restoration of collagen formation in photodamaged human skin by tretinoin (retinoic acid).N Engl J Med. 1993; 329: 530-534Crossref PubMed Scopus (411) Google Scholar), similarly reduces MMP expression and enhances collagen synthesis in sun-protected, naturally aged skin. These data demonstrate that the pathophysiology of natural skin aging and photoaging share some common underlying mechanisms. These data also demonstrate the potential of topical retinoid therapy for reversing connective tissue-destructive events in natural skin aging just as it does in photoaging. The study population consisted of 72 individuals grouped according to age as follows: 18–29 y, 30–59 y, 60–79 y, and 80 y and older. An additional (completely separate) group of 53 individuals, all of whom were 80 y or older, were treated topically for 7 d with 1% retinol and its vehicle (95% ethanol and propylene glycol; 7:3 vol/vol) on different sun-protected buttock skin sites. The retinol and vehicle were applied under occlusion to prevent drug loss and to prevent exposure to light. Replicate 4 mm full-thickness punch biopsies of untreated, or retinol-treated and vehicle-treated sun-protected buttock skin were obtained from each individual. All procedures involving human subjects were approved by the University of Michigan Institutional Review Board, and all subjects provided written informed consent. Sections (5 μm) from formalin-fixed skin samples were stained with hematoxylin and eosin and blinded. The number of cells present in the dermis of each section was determined, taking care not to include cells associated with epithelial structures or capillaries. In selected sections, it was determined that cells which were counted did not stain with antibodies to keratin (epithelial cells) or smooth muscle α-actin (myofibroblasts and smooth muscle cells). The cells thus characterized were operationally defined as fibroblasts, and this term will be used throughout the manuscript to describe the cells. The same sections were scored for four markers of connective tissue alteration: (i) fiber spacing; (ii) fiber thinness; (iii) fiber fragmentation; and (iv) depth of fiber fragmentation, using a scale of 1–9 for each parameter. Vehicle-treated and retinol-treated skin was also stained with a monoclonal antibody (MIB-1; Immunotech, Westbrook, ME) to the proliferation-associated antigen Ki-67 (Key et al., 1993Key G. Becker M.H. Baron B. Duchrow M. Schluter C. Flad H.D. Gerdes J. New Ki-67-equivalent murine monoclonal antibodies (MIB1–3) generated against bacterially expressed parts of the Ki-67 cDNA containing three 62 base pair repetitive elements encoding for the Ki-67 epitope.Lab Invest. 1993; 68: 629-636PubMed Google Scholar). Skin biopsies were cut into small fragments (15–20 fragments per biopsy) and each fragment placed in a well of a 48-well dish. The fragments were incubated for up to 1 mo in Dulbecco’s modified minimal essential medium containing nonessential amino acids and 10% fetal bovine serum at 37°C in a humidified atmosphere containing 5% CO2. The number of tissue fragments from which fibroblasts were isolated (defined as spindle-shaped cells which were reactive with vimentin, but which did not stain with antibodies to keratin or with antibodies to smooth muscle α-actin) was determined, and expressed as a percentage of the total number of tissue fragments incubated. We have previously shown that isolation of fibroblasts from tissue fragments can be used as a reliable means for quantitating growth potential of fibroblasts within the tissue (Varani et al., 1994aVarani J. Perone P. Griffiths C.E.M. Inman D.R. Fligiel S.E.G. Voorhees J.J. All-trans retinoic acid (RA) stimulates events in organ-cultured human skin that underlie repair.J Clin Invest. 1994; 94: 1747-1753Crossref PubMed Google ScholarVarani et al., 1994bVarani J. Perone P. Fligiel S.E.G. Inman D.R. Voorhees J.J. All-trans retinoic acid preserves viability of fibroblasts and keratinocytes in full-thickness human skin and fibroblasts in isolated dermis in organ culture.Arch Dermatol Res. 1994; 286: 443-447Crossref PubMed Scopus (6) Google Scholar). Skin samples were frozen in liquid nitrogen immediately after collection, and kept frozen at -80°C until used for analyses. Skin samples were crushed under liquid nitrogen in mortar and pestle and homogenized in 20 mM Tris (pH 7.6), 5 mM CaCl2. Insoluble material was removed by centrifugation and the supernatant used as the source of MMP. Collagenase enzyme levels were measured by hydrolysis of [3H]labeled type I fibrillar collagen (Hu et al., 1978Hu C.L. Crombie G. Franzblau C. A new assay for collagenolytic activity.Anal Biochem. 1978; 88: 638-645Crossref PubMed Scopus (57) Google Scholar) after activation for 90 min with 1 mM aminophenyl mercuric acetate. Western blot analysis with antibodies to interstitial collagenase (MMP-1) was performed as described (Fisher et al., 1996Fisher G.J. Datta S.C. Talwar H.S. Wang Z.Q. Varani J. Kang S. Voorhees J.J. The molecular basis of sun-induced premature skin ageing and retinoid antagonism.Nature. 1996; 379: 335-338Crossref PubMed Scopus (1197) Google Scholar,Fisher et al., 1997Fisher G.J. Wang Z.Q. Datta S.C. Varani J. Kang S. Voorhees J.J. Pathophysiology of premature skin aging induced by ultraviolet light.N Engl J Med. 1997; 337: 1419-1428Crossref PubMed Scopus (1165) Google Scholar). Gelatinase levels (MMP-2; 72 kDa gelatinase and MMP-9; 92 kDa gelatinase) were measured by gelatin zymography (Mulligan et al., 1993Mulligan M.S. Desrochers P.E. Chinnaiyan A.E. Gibbs D.F. Varani J. Johnson K.J. Weiss S.J. In vivo suppression of immune complex-induced alveolitis by secretory leukoproteinase inhibitor and tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinse-2.Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 1993; 90: 11523-11527Crossref PubMed Scopus (84) Google Scholar) and quantitated by scanning laser densitometry. Although we routinely assessed total enzyme levels, active forms of the MMP were always present along with precursor forms. These could be seen in the western blots for MMP-1 and in the zymograms used to assess MMP-2 and MMP-9. Active enzyme forms ranged from less than 10% of the total in some specimens to greater than 75% in others. There were no consistent age-related differences in the percentage of enzyme in the active form. Likewise, there was no consistent effect of retinol treatment on the percentage of enzyme in the active form. Type I procollagen (α1 chain) protein levels were assessed by western blot analysis and by immunohistology as described (Talwar et al., 1995Talwar H. Griffiths C.E.M. Fisher G.J. Hamilton T.A. Voorhees J.J. Reduced type I and type III procollagens in photodamaged adult human skin.J Invest Dermatol. 1995; 105: 285-291Crossref PubMed Scopus (307) Google Scholar). Type III procollagen immunohistology (α1 chain) was performed as described (Griffiths et al., 1993Griffiths C.E.M. Russman G. Majmudar G. Singer R.S. Hamilton T.A. Voorhees J.J. Restoration of collagen formation in photodamaged human skin by tretinoin (retinoic acid).N Engl J Med. 1993; 329: 530-534Crossref PubMed Scopus (411) Google Scholar) using an antibody from Chemicon International (Temecula, CA). Total collagen biosynthesis by fresh skin samples was assessed by incorporation of [14C]proline into pepsin-resistant, trichloroacetic acid (TCA)-precipitatable material, as described previously (Sykes, 1976Sykes B.C. The separation of two soft tissue collagens by covalent chromatography.FEBS Lett. 1976; 61: 180-185Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (34) Google Scholar;Sykes et al., 1976Sykes B.C. Puddle B. Francis M. Smith R. The estimation of two collagens from human dermis by interrupted gel electrophoresis.Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 1976; 72: 1472-1480Crossref PubMed Scopus (454) Google Scholar;Varani et al., 1990Varani J. Mitra R.S. Gibbs D. Phan S.H. Nickoloff B.J. Voorhees J.J. All-trans retinoic acid stimulates extracellular matrix production in growth-inhibited cultured human skin fibroblasts.J Invest Dermatol. 1990; 794: 717-723Crossref Scopus (83) Google Scholar). Skin samples that had been freeze-thawed prior to incubation with [14C]proline (to disrupt cells and thereby prevent collagen biosynthesis) served as a control for nonspecific label incorporation. To measure type I procollagen biosynthesis specifically, fresh skin samples were incubated for 24 h in keratinocyte basal medium (Clonetics, Walkersville, MD), supplemented with Ca2+ to a final concentration of 1.4 mM. At the end of the incubation period, media were collected and analyzed for type I procollagen protein by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) (PanVera, Madison, WI). Type I procollagen (α1) gene expression in skin specimens was assessed by in situ hybridization. Frozen sections were hybridized with digoxigenin-labeled anti-sense and sense type I procollagen α1 cRNA probes as described previously (Kang et al., 1995Kang S. Duell E.A. Fisher G.J. et al.Application of retinol to human skin in vivo induces epidermal hyperplasia and cellular retinoid-binding proteins characteristic of retinoic acid but without measurable retinoic acid levels or irritation.J Invest Dermatol. 1995; 105: 549-556Crossref PubMed Scopus (264) Google Scholar). Reverse transcription–PCR was used to assess type III procollagen gene expression. Total RNA was isolated from skin specimens using Trizol (Life Technologies BRL, Grand Island, NY) followed by extractions with chloroform and isopropanol. First strand cDNA was synthesized using oligo (dT) primers (cDNA Cycle Kit; Invitrogen, Carlsbad, CA). Sequence-specific primers [3′CGAGTA-GGAGCAGTTGGAGG and 5′GCAGGGAA-CAACTTGATGGT] were used to amplify human type III procollagen (α1). Glyceraldehyde-3 phosphatate dehydrogenase [3′CTGCTTCAC-CACCTTCTTGA and 5′TCACCATCTT-CCAGGAGCG] was amplified as an internal control. PCR products were separated on ethidium bromide-impregnated agarose gels and the bands visualized by UV light (Murata et al., 1997Murata J. Ayukawa K. Ogasawara M. Fujii H. Saiki I. A melanocyte stimulating hormone blocks invasion of reconstituted basement membrane by murine B16 melanoma cells.Invasion Metastasis. 1997; 17: 82-93PubMed Google Scholar). Laser densitometry was used for quantitation. Data were evaluated using analysis of variance followed by paired group comparisons for studies involving individuals in different age groups, and using paired t tests for comparisons between vehicle-treated and retinol-treated skin. All differences were two-tailed (Woodson, 1987Woodson R.F. Statistical Methods for the Analysis of Biomedical Data. John Wiley, New York1987: 314-363Google Scholar). p ≤ 0.05 were considered statistically different. We assessed the degree of connective tissue damage in sun-protected skin from individuals in each of four age groups (18–29, 30–59, 60–79, and 80+ y). With increasing age, there was progressive loss of dermal fibroblasts (Figure 1a), and increased dermal connective tissue abnormalities, as indicated by increased space between connective tissue fiber bundles, increased thinning of connective tissue fiber bundles, increased disorganization of fiber bundles and increased depth to which disorganization extended (Figure 1b). Dermal cellularity and connective tissue features were similar in the two youngest age groups (18–29 and 30–59). Persons aged 60–79 and 80+ y had significantly reduced dermal cellularity and increased connective tissue abnormalities, compared with persons 18–29 y (p <0.05 for both parameters in the 60–79 y old group and p <0.001 and 0.05 for the same parameters in the 80+ y old group). Topical treatment of sun-protected skin of 80+ y old individuals with retinol for 7 d increased dermal cellularity approximately 25% (p =0.009; n = 17) (Figure 1a). Staining of vehicle-treated and retinol-treated skin from 80+ y old individuals with a monoclonal antibody to the proliferation-associated antigen, Ki-67, revealed a significantly higher number of reactive cells in the retinol-treated skin than in skin treated with vehicle alone (20 ± 3 cells in retinol-treated skin versus 3 ± 1 cells in vehicle-treated skin (p <0.01; n = 5). Although retinol treatment for as little as 7 d induced measurable changes in the dermal fibroblast population, this short-term retinol treatment did not alter age-associated connective tissue abnormalities (Figure 1b). Figure 2 shows the typical histologic appearance of dermal connective tissue in sun-protected skin of a 22 y old individual, and vehicle-treated and retinol-treated sun-protected skin of an 86 y old individual. Reduced numbers of fibroblasts and alterations in connective tissue structure are apparent in the aged (vehicle-treated) skin relative to the young skin. Also apparent is the increased number of fibroblasts in the aged retinol-treated skin.Figure 2Histologic features of skin connective tissue are altered in aged skin. Representative histology of skin connective tissue seen in sun-protected skin from a young person (22 y old; a, b) and from 7 d vehicle-treated (c, d) and retinol-treated (e, f) skin from an aged person (86 y old). Formalin-fixed skin sections were stained with hematoxylin and eosin. Scale bar: (a, c, e) 100 μm; (b, d, f) 50 μm.View Large Image Figure ViewerDownload (PPT) Fibroblast outgrowth from skin fragments was used as a measure of fibroblast growth potential within the tissue (Figure 3). Fibroblast outgrowth declined with increasing age. In the 18–29 y old group, fibroblasts were isolated from 182 of 240 tissue fragments (n = 12 subjects, 76%). The percentage of tissue fragments from which fibroblasts were obtained decreased with donor age until in the 80+ y old group, fibroblasts were isolated from only 76 of 200 tissue fragments (n = 10 subjects, 38%) (p <0.05 compared with the 18–29 y old group). Treatment of 80+ y old individuals with retinol for 7 d increased fibroblast outgrowth greater than 3-fold (46 of 255 tissue fragments or 18% in the vehicle-treated group versus 144 of 255 tissue fragments or 56% in the retinol-treated group) (p <0.05; n = 17). We next assessed levels of three connective tissue-degrading MMP, including MMP-1 (interstitial collagenase), MMP-9 (92 kDa gelatinase) and MMP-2 (72 kDa gelatinase), in sun-protected skin as a function of age. All three MMP were elevated in the 80+ y old group, compared with the 18–29 y old age group (approximately 40, 52, and 82% for MMP-1, MMP-9, and MMP-2, respectively) (p <0.01, 0.05, and 0.001) (Figure 4). The three MMP were also elevated in the 60–79 y old group (23, 20, and 44%, respectively). Western blot analysis performed on skin samples from a separate group of 18–29 and 80+ y old individuals revealed that MMP-1 protein levels were increased by approximately 40% in skin samples from persons 80+ y of age (p <0.02, n = 16), compared with persons 18–29 y of age (Figure 5).Figure 5MMP-1 protein level is increased in skin from 80 + y old individuals compared with 18–29 y old individuals. MMP-1 protein levels were assessed by western blot analysis in 16 individuals between 18 and 29 y of age and in 16 individuals 80+ y of age. Values are mean ± SEM. *p <0.02 versus 18–29 y old individuals.View Large Image Figure ViewerDownload (PPT) MMP-1, MMP-2, and MMP-9 levels were also assessed in retinol-treated and vehicle-treated skin from 80+ y old individuals. Retinol treatment reduced MMP-1 and MMP-9 levels to levels seen in persons 18–29 y old (p <0.001; n = 16). In contrast, retinol treatment had no effect on the elevated MMP-2 level in skin of persons in the 80+ y old group (Figure 4). Type I procollagen (α1 chain) protein levels were assessed by western blot analysis in skin samples from persons 18–29 y of age and 80+ y of age. Type I procollagen expression was decreased by 52% in aged skin, compared with skin from younger persons (n = 16, p =0.022) (Figure 6a). Immunohistology of type I procollagen revealed prominent extracellular staining in the dermis, adjacent to the dermoepidermal junction, in skin of persons 18–29 y of age. This staining was substantially reduced in skin of persons 80+ y of age (Figure 6b). We also performed immunohistology of type III procollagen (α1 chain). In skin from young persons, type III procollagen was found associated with mature collagen fibers throughout the dermis. This dermal staining was considerably reduced in the skin of aged persons (Figure 6b). As described above, sun-protected skin of persons in the 80+ y old age group contains reduced numbers of fibroblasts, with diminished growth potential, increased MMP levels, and reduced expression of type I and III procollagen. These properties would be expected to cause a deficit in connective tissue collagen. The finding that 7 d retinol treatment substantially restored fibroblast numbers and growth potential, and reduced MMP levels suggests that retinol might increase collagen content of aged skin. We therefore assessed collagen biosynthesis in vehicle-treated and retinol-treated skin from 80+ y old individuals by three methods: (i) ex vivo incorporation of [14C]p