Various proapoptotic stimuli increase the production of superoxide and H2O2 by mitochondria. Whereas superoxide impairs mitochondrial function and is removed by Mn2+-dependent superoxide dismutase, the role and metabolism of mitochondrial H2O2 during apoptosis have remained unclear. The effects on apoptotic signaling of depletion of peroxiredoxin (Prx) III, a mitochondrion-specific H2O2-scavenging enzyme, have now been investigated by RNA interference in HeLa cells. Depletion of Prx III resulted in increased intracellular levels of H2O2 and sensitized cells to induction of apoptosis by staurosporine or TNF-α. The rates of mitochondrial membrane potential collapse, cytochrome c release, and caspase activation were increased in Prx III-depleted cells, and these effects were reversed by ectopic expression of Prx III or mitochondrion-targeted catalase. Depletion of Prx III also exacerbated damage to mitochondrial macromolecules induced by the proapoptotic stimuli. Our results suggest that Prx III is a critical regulator of the abundance of mitochondrial H2O2, which itself promotes apoptosis in cooperation with other mediators of apoptotic signaling. Various proapoptotic stimuli increase the production of superoxide and H2O2 by mitochondria. Whereas superoxide impairs mitochondrial function and is removed by Mn2+-dependent superoxide dismutase, the role and metabolism of mitochondrial H2O2 during apoptosis have remained unclear. The effects on apoptotic signaling of depletion of peroxiredoxin (Prx) III, a mitochondrion-specific H2O2-scavenging enzyme, have now been investigated by RNA interference in HeLa cells. Depletion of Prx III resulted in increased intracellular levels of H2O2 and sensitized cells to induction of apoptosis by staurosporine or TNF-α. The rates of mitochondrial membrane potential collapse, cytochrome c release, and caspase activation were increased in Prx III-depleted cells, and these effects were reversed by ectopic expression of Prx III or mitochondrion-targeted catalase. Depletion of Prx III also exacerbated damage to mitochondrial macromolecules induced by the proapoptotic stimuli. Our results suggest that Prx III is a critical regulator of the abundance of mitochondrial H2O2, which itself promotes apoptosis in cooperation with other mediators of apoptotic signaling. Normal cellular processes that involve oxygen result in the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) 1The abbreviations used are: ROS, reactive oxygen species; CHX, cycloheximide; CM-H2DCFDA, 5-(and 6-)chloromethyl-2′,7′-dichlorodihydrofluorescein diacetate; Δψm, mitochondrial membrane potential; DEVD-AMC, Asp-Glu-Val-Asp-(7-amino-4-methylcoumarin); DHR123, dihydrorhodamine 123; GPx, glutathione peroxidase; JC-1, 5,5′,6,6′-tetrachloro-1,1′,3,3′-tetraethyl-benzimidazolylcarbocyanin iodide; mtDNA, mitochondrial DNA; NAO, 10-N-nonyl-acridine orange; PARP, poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase; Prx, peroxiredoxin; PTP, permeability transition pore; RNAi, RNA interference; siRNA, small interfering RNA; SOD, superoxide dismutase; CHAPS, 3-[(3-cholamidopropyl)dimethylammonio]-1-propanesulfonic acid; RT, reverse transcriptase.1The abbreviations used are: ROS, reactive oxygen species; CHX, cycloheximide; CM-H2DCFDA, 5-(and 6-)chloromethyl-2′,7′-dichlorodihydrofluorescein diacetate; Δψm, mitochondrial membrane potential; DEVD-AMC, Asp-Glu-Val-Asp-(7-amino-4-methylcoumarin); DHR123, dihydrorhodamine 123; GPx, glutathione peroxidase; JC-1, 5,5′,6,6′-tetrachloro-1,1′,3,3′-tetraethyl-benzimidazolylcarbocyanin iodide; mtDNA, mitochondrial DNA; NAO, 10-N-nonyl-acridine orange; PARP, poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase; Prx, peroxiredoxin; PTP, permeability transition pore; RNAi, RNA interference; siRNA, small interfering RNA; SOD, superoxide dismutase; CHAPS, 3-[(3-cholamidopropyl)dimethylammonio]-1-propanesulfonic acid; RT, reverse transcriptase. such as superoxide (O2:, H2O2, and the hydroxyl radical (OH.). Each of these species has the potential to oxidize macromolecules and thereby to induce mutation of DNA, impairment of protein function, and lipid peroxidation. Most ROS in unstimulated mammalian cells are generated as a result of the univalent reduction of molecular oxygen toO2⋅¯ by electrons that leak from the mitochondrial electron transport chain, mainly from complexes I and III (1Boveris A. Chance B. Biochem. J. 1973; 134: 707-716Crossref PubMed Scopus (2086) Google Scholar, 2Cadenas E. Boveris A. Ragan C.I. Stoppani A.O. Arch Biochem. Biophys. 1977; 180: 248-257Crossref PubMed Scopus (690) Google Scholar, 3Turrens J.F. Biosci. Rep. 1997; 17: 3-8Crossref PubMed Scopus (752) Google Scholar). Given its charged nature,O2⋅¯ does not readily cross membranes; therefore, if not destroyed, it inhibits mitochondrial function by inactivating the Fe-S centers in the electron transport chain (complexes I and III) and the tricarboxylic acid cycle (aconitase) (4Wallace D.C. 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Bronson R.T. Cao J. Gargano M. Sugawara M. Funk C.D. J. Biol. Chem. 1997; 272: 16644-16651Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (483) Google Scholar). Furthermore, hepatocytes isolated from these animals did not show an enhanced sensitivity to apoptosis initiated by TNF-α receptors or Fas (51Bajt M.L. Ho Y.S. Vonderfecht S.L. Jaeschke H. Antioxid. Redox Signal. 2002; 4: 733-740Crossref PubMed Scopus (35) Google Scholar). A protective role for GPx1 became apparent, however, when the GPx1 knockout and control mice, or cell lines derived from these animals, were subjected to extreme oxidative stress such as that associated with ischemia-reperfusion injury or treatment with paraquat or a bolus of H2O2 (48de Haan J.B. Bladier C. Griffiths P. Kelner M. O'Shea R.D. Cheung N.S. Bronson R.T. Silvestro M.J. Wild S. Zheng S.S. Beart P.M. Hertzog P.J. Kola I. J. Biol. Chem. 1998; 273: 22528-22536Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (378) Google Scholar, 52Crack P.J. Taylor J.M. 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Gustafsson J.-A. J. Biol. Chem. 1997; 272: 2936-2941Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (332) Google Scholar, 17Lee S.-R. Kim J.-R. Kwon K.-S. Yoon H.W. Levine R.L. Ginsburg A. Rhee S.G. J. Biol. Chem. 1999; 274: 4722-4734Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (242) Google Scholar), suggest that these three proteins might provide a primary line of defense against H2O2 produced by the mitochondrial respiratory chain (53Miranda-Vizuete A. Damdimopoulos A.E. Spyrou G. Antioxid. Redox Signal. 2000; 2: 801-810Crossref PubMed Scopus (118) Google Scholar, 54Pedrajas J.R. Miranda-Vizuete A. Javanmardy N. Gustafsson J.-A. Spyrou G. J. Biol. Chem. 2000; 275: 16296-16301Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (152) Google Scholar), as MnSOD does againstO2⋅¯. The role of Prx III in mitochondria has not been defined, however. Therefore, with the use of RNA interference (RNAi), we have now investigated the effects of depletion of endogenous Prx III on oxidative damage to mitochondrial components and on apoptotic events. Our results indicate that Prx III is much more abundant in mitochondria than is GPx1 and is a critical regulator of the mitochondrial H2O2 concentration, in contrast to the widely held view that GPx1 is the only important H2O2-metabolizing enzyme in mitochondria (3Turrens J.F. Biosci. Rep. 1997; 17: 3-8Crossref PubMed Scopus (752) Google Scholar, 44Kokoszka J.E. Coskun P. Esposito L.A. Wallace D.C. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 2001; 98: 2278-2283Crossref PubMed Scopus (378) Google Scholar, 48de Haan J.B. Bladier C. Griffiths P. Kelner M. O'Shea R.D. Cheung N.S. Bronson R.T. Silvestro M.J. Wild S. Zheng S.S. Beart P.M. Hertzog P.J. Kola I. J. Biol. Chem. 1998; 273: 22528-22536Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (378) Google Scholar, 49Boveris A. Cadenas E. IUBMB Life. 2000; 50: 245-250Crossref PubMed Scopus (131) Google Scholar, 50Cadenas E. Mol. Aspects Med. 2004; 25: 17-26Crossref PubMed Scopus (346) Google Scholar). We further demonstrate a regulatory function for Prx III during apoptosis induced by staurosporine or TNF-α. Depletion of Prx III by RNAi—A small interfering RNA (siRNA) duplex targeting the 5′-AAGCCAAGUCCAGCUGCUUCC-3′ sequence in the open reading frame of human Prx III mRNA as well as siCONTROL® non-targeting siRNA were obtained from Dharmacon Research (Lafayette, CO). The RNAs were introduced into HeLa cells by transfection with the use of a Nucleofector instrument (Amaxa Biosystems, Cologne, Germany). Preparation of Recombinant Proteins—The DNA sequence for human GPx1 was amplified by PCR from HeLa cell cDNA and cloned into the NdeI and EcoRI sites of pET17b (Novagen, Madison, WI). The resulting plasmid, pET17b-GPx1, was subjected to site-directed mutagenesis with the primers 5′-TGGCGTCCCTCTGCGGCACCACGGT-3′ and 5′-ACCGTGGTGCCGCAGAGGGACGCCA-3′ (mutated residue in bold) in order to replace selenocysteine at position 47 with cysteine. Escherichia coli BL21(DE3) cells harboring the mutated plasmid were cultured in Luria-Bertani broth and expression of the recombinant protein was induced by incubation of the cells for 3 h with 1 mm isopropyl-β-d-thiogalactopyranoside. The cells were harvested by centrifugation at 12,000 × g for 10 min at 4 °C, resuspended in 10 vol of ice-cold extraction buffer (20 mm Tris-HCl, pH 7.5, 10 mm NaCl, 1 mm EDTA, 0.5 mm aminoethylbenzene sulfonyl fluoride, 5 mm dithiothreitol), and then disrupted by pressure. After centrifugation of the cell lysate at 12,000 × g for 30 min at 4 °C, the supernatant was treated immediately on ice with streptomycin sulfate (final concentration, 1%) for 30 min and then centrifuged again at 12,000 × g for 30 min at 4 °C to remove the precipitated nucleic acid. Human GPx1 was purified from the resulting supernatant by a series of chromatographic steps including HPLC on TSK DEAE-5PW and TSK phenyl-5PW columns (Tosoh Bioscience, Montgomeryville, PA) as well as gel filtration on Superose-6 (Amersham Biosciences, Piscataway, NJ). Recombinant human Prx III was expressed in E. coli and purified as described previously (12Chae H.Z. Kim H.J. Kang S.W. Rhee S.G. Diabetes Res. Clin. Pract. 1999; 45: 101-112Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (318) Google Scholar). Induction of Apoptosis—HeLa cells were exposed for the indicated times to 200 nm staurosporine (Calbiochem, San Diego, CA) or to the combination of TNF-α (15 ng/ml) (Invitrogen, La Jolla, CA) and cycloheximide (CHX) (10 μg/ml). Subcellular Fractionation—Cytosolic and mitochondria-enriched fractions were prepared from HeLa cells with the use of a Subcellular Proteome Extraction kit (Calbiochem). Immunoblot Analysis—HeLa cell lysates were prepared and immunoblot analysis was performed as described previously (55Chang T.S. Jeong W. Choi S.Y. Yu S. Kang S.W. Rhee S.G. J. Biol. Chem. 2002; 277: 25370-25376Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (212) Google Scholar). Monoclonal antibodies to poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) and to cytochrome c were obtained from BD PharMingen (San Diego, CA), those to β-actin were from Abcam (Cambridge, UK), polyclonal antibodies to caspase-3 and to caspase-9 were from Cell Signaling Technology (Beverly, MA), those to GPx1 were from LabFrontier (Seoul, Korea), and rabbit antiserum to Prx III, Prx I, and thioredoxin reductase 2 were described previously (12Chae H.Z. Kim H.J. Kang S.W. Rhee S.G. Diabetes Res. Clin. Pract. 1999; 45: 101-112Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (318) Google Scholar, 17Lee S.-R. Kim J.-R. Kwon K.-S. Yoon H.W. Levine R.L. Ginsburg A. Rhee S.G. J. Biol. Chem. 1999; 274: 4722-4734Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (242) Google Scholar). Carbonylated proteins in the mitochondrial fraction were labeled by derivatization of the carbonyl groups with 2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazine and then detected with antibodies specific for the latter moiety (Zymed Laboratories Inc., San Francisco, CA) (56, Levine, R. L., Wehr, N., Williams, J. A., Stadtman, E. R., and Shacter, E. (2000) Methods In Molecular Biology, Vol. 99, pp. 15-24, Clifton, NJ.Google Scholar). Assay of Caspase-3 Activity—Caspase-3 activity was assayed by incubating cell lysate (10 μg of protein) with 200 μl of reaction buffer (100 mm Hepes-KOH (pH 7.5), 10% (w/v) sucrose, 0.1% CHAPS, 10 mm dithiothreitol) containing 25 μm Asp-Glu-Val-Asp-(7-amino-4-methylcoumarin) (DEVD-AMC) (Biomol, Plymouth Meeting, PA). The fluorescence generated by cleavage of the artificial substrate was measured with a CytoFluor 4000 instrument (PerSeptive Biosystems, Framingham, MA) at excitation and emission wavelengths of 380 and 460 nm, respectively. Confocal Microscopy—Cells on coverslips were fixed with 4% paraformaldehyde and permeabilized for 5 min with 0.2% Triton X-100. Endogenous Prx III was detected with specific antiserum (1:50 dilution) and Alexa-488-conjugated goat antibodies to rabbit IgG (Molecular Probes, Eugene, OR). Mitochondria were stained with 0.1 μm MitoTracker Red CMXRos and nuclei were stained with Hoechst 33342 (10 μg/ml), both from Molecular Probes. Confocal fluorescence images were obtained with an LSM510 microscope (Carl Zeiss, Tornwood, NJ). Apoptotic cells were quantified as a percentage of total cells on the basis of their condensed or fragmented nuclei as revealed by the Hoechst dye; at least 300 cells from five random fields were scored for each sample. Flow Cytometry—A FACSCalibur flow cytometer (BD Biosciences) was used for all analyses, with a minimum of 2 × 104 cells per sample for each measurement. The excitation wavelength was 488 nm, and the observation wavelength was 530 nm for green fluorescence and 585 nm for red fluorescence. Relative change in fluorescence was analyzed with WinMDI software. For analysis of apoptosis, cells were stained with propidium iodide (25 μg/ml) as described previously (55Chang T.S. Jeong W. Choi S.Y. Yu S. Kang S.W. Rhee S.G. J. Biol. Chem. 2002; 277: 25370-25376Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (212) Google Scholar) and the percentage of hypodiploid (apoptotic) cells was determined. For evaluation of cardiolipin peroxidation, cells were labeled with 5 μm 10-N-nonylacridine orange (NAO) (Molecular Probes) for 30 min and washed twice before measurement of the fluorescence emitted by cardiolipin-bound NAO. For evaluation of changes in the mitochondrial membrane potential (Δψm), cells (4 × 105) were incubated with 10 μg/ml of 5,5′, 6,6′-tetrachloro-1,1′,3,3′-tetraethyl-benzimidazolylcarbocyanin iodide (JC-1) (Molecular Probes) for 20 min at 37 °C and the shifts in both red and green fluorescence emissions of JC-1 were measured. Measurement of ROS—For measurement of intracellular ROS, detached cells were loaded with 5 μm 5,6-chloromethyl-2′,7′-dichlorodihydrofluorescein diacetate (CM-H2DCFDA) (Molecular Probes) at 37 °C for 20 min, washed, and then analyzed immediately by flow cytometry. Direct visualization of mitochondrial ROS generation was achieved with the use of dihydrorhodamine 123 (DHR123) (Molecular Probes). To verify that mitochondria were indeed the site of ROS formation, we incubated cells with both 1 μm DHR123 and 1 μm MitoTracker Red for 20 min at 37 °C. Cells loaded with the fluorescent probes were imaged with an LSM510 confocal microscope fitted with an objective with a magnification of ×40 and an NA of 1.3. Excitation was performed at 458 nm for R123 and at 543 nm for Mitotracker Red. R123 fluorescence was passed through a 505/530-nm band-pass filter. Mitotracker Red fluorescence was passed through a 560-nm long-pass filter. For overlaid images, exposures were collected for equal times at the same plane of focus for both excitation wavelengths; the images were overlaid with a computer and R123 fluorescence was analyzed with MetaMorph software (Universal Imaging, Westchester, PA). Quantitative RT-PCR—Total RNA was extracted from cells with the use of an RNeasy kit (Qiagen) and portions (2 μg) were subjected to reverse transcription in a final volume of 20 μl also with the use of a kit (Invitrogen). The resulting first-strand cDNA was diluted and used as a template for real-time PCR analysis with an ABI 7700 sequence detection system (Applied Biosystems, Foster City, CA). A fluorogenic probe (5′-6-FAM-CTGTGGAGCAAACC-TAMRA-3′, where 6-FAM is 6-carboxyfluorescein and TAMRA is 6-carboxy-N,N,N′,N′-tetramethylrhodamine and primer pair (5′-GGTATACTACGGTCAATGCTCTGAAA-3′, 5′-ACGATGGGCATGAAACTG-3′) for human cytochrome c oxidase were designed with the use of ABI Primer Express software (Applied Biosystems). Reactions for each sample were performed in triplicate with equal amounts of template cDNA. The amount of cytochrome c oxidase mRNA was normalized by that of human 18 S