Studies from our laboratory have demonstrated that the major green tea polyphenol, (−)-epigallocatechin 3-gallate (EGCG), exerts potent neuroprotective actions in the mice model of Parkinson's disease. These studies were extended to neuronal cell culture employing the parkinsonism-inducing neurotoxin, 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA). Pretreatment with EGCG (0.1–10 μm) attenuated human neuroblastoma (NB) SH-SY5Y cell death, induced by a 24-h exposure to 6-OHDA (50 μm). Potential cell signaling candidates involved in this neuroprotective effect were further examined. EGCG restored the reduced protein kinase C (PKC) and extracellular signal-regulated kinases (ERK1/2) activities caused by 6-OHDA toxicity. However, the neuroprotective effect of EGCG on cell survival was abolished by pretreatment with PKC inhibitor GF 109203X (1 μm). Because EGCG increased phosphorylated PKC, we suggest that PKC isoenzymes are involved in the neuroprotective action of EGCG against 6-OHDA. In addition, gene expression analysis revealed that EGCG prevented both the 6-OHDA-induced expression of several mRNAs, such as Bax, Bad, and Mdm2, and the decrease in Bcl-2, Bcl-w, and Bcl-xL. These results suggest that the neuroprotective mechanism of EGCG against oxidative stress-induced cell death includes stimulation of PKC and modulation of cell survival/cell cycle genes. Studies from our laboratory have demonstrated that the major green tea polyphenol, (−)-epigallocatechin 3-gallate (EGCG), exerts potent neuroprotective actions in the mice model of Parkinson's disease. These studies were extended to neuronal cell culture employing the parkinsonism-inducing neurotoxin, 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA). Pretreatment with EGCG (0.1–10 μm) attenuated human neuroblastoma (NB) SH-SY5Y cell death, induced by a 24-h exposure to 6-OHDA (50 μm). Potential cell signaling candidates involved in this neuroprotective effect were further examined. EGCG restored the reduced protein kinase C (PKC) and extracellular signal-regulated kinases (ERK1/2) activities caused by 6-OHDA toxicity. However, the neuroprotective effect of EGCG on cell survival was abolished by pretreatment with PKC inhibitor GF 109203X (1 μm). Because EGCG increased phosphorylated PKC, we suggest that PKC isoenzymes are involved in the neuroprotective action of EGCG against 6-OHDA. In addition, gene expression analysis revealed that EGCG prevented both the 6-OHDA-induced expression of several mRNAs, such as Bax, Bad, and Mdm2, and the decrease in Bcl-2, Bcl-w, and Bcl-xL. These results suggest that the neuroprotective mechanism of EGCG against oxidative stress-induced cell death includes stimulation of PKC and modulation of cell survival/cell cycle genes. oxidative stress (−)-epigallocatechin 3-gallate rat pheochromocytoma cells human neuroblastoma cells 6-hydroxydopamine N-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine nuclear factor-κB protein kinase C mitogen-activated protein kinase extracellular signal-regulated kinase c-Jun N-terminal kinase phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate Dulbecco's modified Eagle's medium fetal calf serum 2-[bis(2-hydroxyethyl)amino]-2-(hydroxymethyl)propane-1,3-diol pantothenate stress-activated protein kinase 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide 1-methyl-4-phenylpyridinium Biochemical evidence points to central roles for oxidative stress (OS)1 and inflammation in neuronal death in idiopathic Parkinson's disease (1Gerlach M. Ben-Shachar D. Riederer P. Youdim M.B.H. J. Neurochem. 1994; 793: 793-807Google Scholar, 2Jenner P. Olanow C.W. Neurology. 1996; 47: 161-170Crossref PubMed Google Scholar). Consistent with these findings is the fact that antioxidants and iron chelator-based neuroprotective strategies are at the focus of attention in determining how to neutralize OS-induced damage. Dietary antioxidants, especially tea and tea polyphenols, have attracted increasing interest because of their well reported biological effects including radical scavenging (3Salah N. Miller N.J. Paganga G. Tijburg L. Bolwell G.P. Rice-Evans C. Arch Biochem. Biophys. 1995; 322: 339-346Crossref PubMed Scopus (1150) Google Scholar, 4Nanjo F. Goto K. Seto R. Suzuki M. Sakai M. Hara Y. Free Radic. Biol. Med. 1996; 21: 895-902Crossref PubMed Scopus (703) Google Scholar) iron chelating (5Guo Q. Zhao B., Li, M. Shen S. Xin W. Biochim. Biophys. Acta. 1996; 1304: 210-222Crossref PubMed Scopus (466) Google Scholar), anti-carcinogenic (6Yang C.S. Wang Z.Y. J. Natl. 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Chem. 1974; 249: 2447-2452Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Google Scholar). This effect was achieved by preventing the translocation to the nucleus of the inflammatory and OS-responsive transcription factor, nuclear factor κB (NF-κB) (10Levites Y. Youdim M.B.H. Maor G. Mandel S. Biochem. Pharmacol. 2002; 63: 21-29Crossref PubMed Scopus (298) Google Scholar). On the other hand, tea or more specifically its polyphenolic fraction has been reported to decrease the incidence of carcinogen-inducing malignancies in animal models (12Stoner G.D. Mukhtar H. J. Cell. Biochem. Suppl. 1995; 22: 169-180Crossref PubMed Scopus (583) Google Scholar) because of its pro-oxidant and pro-apoptotic activities.We have recently demonstrated potent neuroprotective properties of both green tea extract and the green tea polyphenol (−)-epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG) against striatal dopamine depletion and substantia nigra dopaminergic neuron loss, caused by N-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP) in mice (13Levites Y. Weinreb O. Maor G. Youdim M.B.H. Mandel S. J. Neurochem. 2001; 78: 1073-1082Crossref PubMed Scopus (517) Google Scholar). Similarly, administration of tea polyphenols immediately after ischemia improved the memory impairment and reduced hippocampal neuronal damage in mice (14Matsuoka Y. Hasegawa H. Okuda S. Muraki T. Uruno T. Kubota K. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 1995; 274: 602-608PubMed Google Scholar, 15Lee S. Suh S. Kim S. Neurosci. Lett. 2000; 287: 191-194Crossref PubMed Scopus (228) Google Scholar), whereas the consumption of flavonoid-rich blueberries or strawberries reversed the age-related cognitive and motor behavioral deficits in rats (16Joseph J.A. Shukitt-Hale B. Denisova N.A. Bielinski D. Martin A. McEwen J.J. Bickford P.C. J. Neurosci. 1999; 19: 8114-8121Crossref PubMed Google Scholar). Clinical trials with Alzheimer's disease patients have also demonstrated potential benefits from treatment with the antioxidant extract of Gingko biloba, known to be enriched with flavonoids (for review see Ref.17Pratico D. Delanty N. Am. J. Med. 2000; 109: 577-585Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (345) Google Scholar). These findings are supported by in vitro studies, where EGCG or the Ginkgo biloba extract were shown to prevent amyloid β peptide (Aβ)-induced neurotoxicity in cultured hippocampal neurons (18Choi Y.T. Jung C.H. Lee S.R. Bae J.H. Baek W.K. Suh M.H. Park J. Park C.W. Suh S.I. Life Sci. 2001; 70: 603-614Crossref PubMed Scopus (305) Google Scholar, 19Bastianetto S. Ramassamy C. Dore S. Christen Y. Poirier J. Quirion R. Eur. J. Neurosci. 2000; 12: 1882-1890Crossref PubMed Scopus (339) Google Scholar) and in PC12 cells 2Y. Levites, T. Amit, S. Mandel, and M. B. H. Youdim, submitted for publication.2Y. Levites, T. Amit, S. Mandel, and M. B. H. Youdim, submitted for publication.Moreover, the flavonoid epicatechin was shown to attenuate neurotoxicity induced by oxidized low density lipoprotein in mouse-derived striatal neurons (20Schroeter H. Williams R.J. Matin R. Iversen L. Rice-Evans C.A. Free Radic. Biol. Med. 2000; 29: 1222-1233Crossref PubMed Scopus (170) Google Scholar).Neuronal damage, emerging from OS, has been reported to involve regulation of cell signaling molecules, as well as activation of apoptotic pathways (21Xia Z. Dickens M. Raingeaud J. Davis R.J. Greenberg M.E. Science. 1995; 270: 1326-1331Crossref PubMed Scopus (5027) Google Scholar, 22Satoh T. Nakatsuka D. Watanabe Y. Nagata I. Kikuchi H. Namura S. Neurosci. Lett. 2000; 288: 163-166Crossref PubMed Scopus (216) Google Scholar, 23Chun H.S. Gibson G.E. DeGiorgio L.A. Zhang H. Kidd V.J. Son J.H. J. Neurochem. 2001; 76: 1010-1021Crossref PubMed Scopus (234) Google Scholar). Several studies have suggested a fundamental role for protein kinase C (PKC) in the regulation of cell survival and programmed cell death (24Whelan R.D. Parker P.J. Oncogene. 1998; 16: 1939-1944Crossref PubMed Scopus (136) Google Scholar, 25Dempsey E.C. Newton A.C. Mochly-Rosen D. Fields A.P. Reyland M.E. Insel P.A. Messing R.O. Am. J. Physiol. 2000; 279: L429-L438Crossref PubMed Google Scholar, 26Maher P. J. Neurosci. 2001; 21: 2929-2938Crossref PubMed Google Scholar, 27Berra E. Municio M.M. Sanz L. Frutos S. Diaz-Meco M.T. Moscat J. Mol. Cell. Biol. 1997; 17: 4346-4354Crossref PubMed Scopus (159) Google Scholar). In this line, it was shown that brain-derived neurotrophic factor prevented the decline in PKC activity as a consequence ofN-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA)-induced excitotoxicity in primary rat cortical neurons (28Tremblay R. Hewitt K. Lesiuk H. Mealing G. Morley P. Durkin J.P. J. Neurochem. 1999; 72: 102-111Crossref PubMed Scopus (58) Google Scholar). Consistent with that, activation of PKC by phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA) protected the hippocampal cell line from glutamate toxicity, and this effect was mediated through activation of extracellular signal-regulated kinases 1 and 2 (ERK1/2) and c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) (26Maher P. J. Neurosci. 2001; 21: 2929-2938Crossref PubMed Google Scholar). Moreover, the regulation of ERK1/2 and JNK activities in neurodegeneration induced by reactive oxygen species has been reported previously (21Xia Z. Dickens M. Raingeaud J. Davis R.J. Greenberg M.E. Science. 1995; 270: 1326-1331Crossref PubMed Scopus (5027) Google Scholar). The involvement of mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) is supported by the fact that specific pathway inhibitors conferred protection against different cell death-promoting agents (22Satoh T. Nakatsuka D. Watanabe Y. Nagata I. Kikuchi H. Namura S. Neurosci. Lett. 2000; 288: 163-166Crossref PubMed Scopus (216) Google Scholar, 29Singer C.A. Figueroa-Masot X.A. Batchelor R.H. Dorsa D.M. J. Neurosci. 1999; 19: 2455-2463Crossref PubMed Google Scholar). It was shown that flavonoids can activate MAPK signaling cascades in both neuronal and extraneuronal tissues; the flavonoid catechin was shown to counteract the induction of both ERK1/2 and JNK, induced by oxidized low density lipoprotein in primary cultures of mice striatal neurons (30Schroeter H. Spencer J.P. Rice-Evans C. Williams R.J. Biochem. J. 2001; 358: 547-557Crossref PubMed Scopus (338) Google Scholar). Furthermore, green tea polyphenol fraction and EGCG were demonstrated to modulate ERK, JNK, and p38 pathways in human hepatoma HepG2 (31Yu R. Jiao J.J. Duh J.L. Gudehithlu K. Tan T.H. Kong A.N. Carcinogenesis. 1997; 18: 451-456Crossref PubMed Scopus (172) Google Scholar) and cervical squamous carcinoma HeLa cells (32Chen C., Yu, R. Owuor E.D. Kong A.N. Arch. Pharm. Res. 2000; 23: 605-612Crossref PubMed Scopus (375) Google Scholar) and/or inhibit Ras-MAPK pathway in human prostate cancer DU145 cells (33Chung J.Y. Park J.O. Phyu H. Dong Z. Yang C.S. FASEB J. 2001; 15: 2022-2024Crossref PubMed Scopus (162) Google Scholar).The aim of the present study was to investigate the different aspects involved in neuronal damage induced by 6-OHDA, a neurotoxin that induces cell death via OS (34Glinka Y.Y. Youdim M.B. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 1995; 292: 329-332PubMed Google Scholar, 35Choi W.S. Yoon S.Y., Oh, T.H. Choi E.J. O'Malley K.L. Oh Y.J. J. Neurosci. Res. 1999; 57: 86-94Crossref PubMed Scopus (229) Google Scholar), and in neuroprotection afforded by EGCG. We have shown that EGCG prevents neuronal cell damage at low concentrations, whereas high doses promote cell death. Our results suggest the involvement of PKC and ERK1/2 as well as modulation of cell survival/cell cycle genes in the neuroprotective action of EGCG.DISCUSSIONThis study demonstrates the neuroprotective effect of EGCG against 6-OHDA-induced oxidative damage. Detailed investigation on the mechanism mediating this neuroprotective effect shows, for the first time, that restoration of the reduced PKC and ERK1/2 phosphorylation levels induced by 6-OHDA, as well as modulation of antiapoptotic-related genes, mediate EGCG action. Given that the neuroprotective action of EGCG was blocked by inhibition of PKC activity, we suggest that activation of PKC is part of the neuroprotective mechanisms that are activated by this polyphenol to counteract death signals in neuronal cells. However, the possible contribution of the established radical scavenging action of EGCG cannot be ruled out.These results are in accordance with our recent studies showing that green tea extract or its individual EGCG polyphenol can prevent mice striatal dopamine depletion and nigral dopaminergic neuronal loss in the MPTP mice model of Parkinson's disease (13Levites Y. Weinreb O. Maor G. Youdim M.B.H. Mandel S. J. Neurochem. 2001; 78: 1073-1082Crossref PubMed Scopus (517) Google Scholar). Further support comes from in vitro studies, where green tea and black tea extracts were shown to exhibit potent neuroprotection against 6-OHDA-induced damage in NB SH-SY5Y and PC12 cells, via inhibition of nuclear translocation of the OS and inflammatory-responsive transcription factor NF-κB (10Levites Y. Youdim M.B.H. Maor G. Mandel S. Biochem. Pharmacol. 2002; 63: 21-29Crossref PubMed Scopus (298) Google Scholar). Moreover, EGCG or Ginkgo biloba extract, known to be enriched with flavonoids, protects hippocampal neurons from β-amyloid-derived peptide (Aβ)- or nitric oxide-induced neurotoxicity (18Choi Y.T. Jung C.H. Lee S.R. Bae J.H. Baek W.K. Suh M.H. Park J. Park C.W. Suh S.I. Life Sci. 2001; 70: 603-614Crossref PubMed Scopus (305) Google Scholar, 19Bastianetto S. Ramassamy C. Dore S. Christen Y. Poirier J. Quirion R. Eur. J. Neurosci. 2000; 12: 1882-1890Crossref PubMed Scopus (339) Google Scholar, 39Bastianetto S. Zheng W.H. Quirion R. J. Neurochem. 2000; 74: 2268-2277Crossref PubMed Scopus (210) Google Scholar). Furthermore, the polyphenol epicatechin was shown to attenuate neurotoxicity induced by oxidized low density lipoprotein in mouse-derived striatal neurons (30Schroeter H. Spencer J.P. Rice-Evans C. Williams R.J. Biochem. J. 2001; 358: 547-557Crossref PubMed Scopus (338) Google Scholar). Similarly, we found that EGCG was equally potent against the cellular toxicity caused by Aβ and by the active metabolite of MPTP, methyl-4-phenylpyridinium (MPP+) in NB SH-SY5Y cells (data not shown). Our recent studies have clearly shown that EGCG is not only able to protect but even to rescue PC12 cells against the Aβ-(25–35, 1–40, 1–42) toxicity.2 This highlights the pharmacological potential use of EGCG after the damage has been caused.EGCG has a concentration window of neuroprotective action: it protects against 6-OHDA at concentrations up to 10 μm, whereas higher doses are pro-toxic. This bell-shaped pattern is typical of antioxidative drugs, such as green tea extract (10Levites Y. Youdim M.B.H. Maor G. Mandel S. Biochem. Pharmacol. 2002; 63: 21-29Crossref PubMed Scopus (298) Google Scholar), vitamin C (40Halliwell B. Free Radic. Res. 1996; 25: 439-454Crossref PubMed Scopus (467) Google Scholar), R-apomorphine (41Gassen M. Pinchasi B. Youdim M.B. Adv. Pharmacol. 1998; 42: 320-324Crossref PubMed Scopus (20) Google Scholar, 42Deacon E.M. Pongracz J. Griffiths G. Lord J.M. Mol. Pathol. 1997; 50: 124-131Crossref PubMed Scopus (107) Google Scholar), and dopamine (36Gassen M. Gross A. Youdim M.B. Mov. Dis. 1998; 13: 242-248Crossref PubMed Scopus (63) Google Scholar), being neuroprotective at low (1–10 μm) concentrations, while having pro-oxidant activity at higher (10–50 μm) concentrations.There is evidence from neuronal and non-neuronal models that PKC may be necessary for the regulation of cell proliferation and differentiation, and it has also been implicated in the control of cell survival and programmed cell death (24–27,42). The rapid loss of neuronal PKC activity is a common consequence of several brain damages, such as ischemia (43Cardell M. Wieloch T. J. Neurochem. 1993; 61: 1308-1314Crossref PubMed Scopus (100) Google Scholar, 44Busto R. Globus M.Y. Neary J.T. Ginsberg M.D. J. Neurochem. 1994; 63: 1095-1103Crossref PubMed Scopus (100) Google Scholar) and glucose deprivation (45Small D.L. Monette R. Chakravarthy B. Durkin J. Barbe G. Mealing G. Morley P. Buchan A.M. Neuropharmacology. 1996; 35: 1037-1048Crossref PubMed Scopus (23) Google Scholar). Therefore, PKC activation has been suggested to represent a pivotal therapeutic target. Only a small number of compounds have been reported to prevent the decline in PKC activity, observed in response to a variety of insults. These include brain-derived neurotrophic factor or vasoactive intestinal peptide, which were shown to protect primary rat cortical neurons (28Tremblay R. Hewitt K. Lesiuk H. Mealing G. Morley P. Durkin J.P. J. Neurochem. 1999; 72: 102-111Crossref PubMed Scopus (58) Google Scholar) and mice white matter tissue (46Gressens P. Marret S. Martin J.L. Laquerriere A. Lombet A. Evrard P. J. Neurochem. 1998; 70: 2574-2584Crossref PubMed Scopus (50) Google Scholar), respectively, against excitotoxic insults, through activation of PKC. We found that 6-OHDA toxicity is accompanied by a decline in phosphorylated PKC levels, suggesting that promotion of cell death by 6-OHDA involves inactivation of PKC. This effect was completely abolished by pretreatment with EGCG. In addition, EGCG increased phosphorylated PKC, suggesting that EGCG-mediated protection of neuronal cells from 6-OHDA damage is dependent on PKC activation. This is supported by the findings that the general PKC inhibitor GF 109203X completely abolished the protection induced by EGCG in response to 6-OHDA toxicity. PMA, a direct activator of PKC, mimicked the protection afforded by EGCG against the toxin, further indicating the crucial role of PKC in cell survival. EGCG significantly increases the levels of PKC-α and -ε isoforms in mouse hippocampus.2 These isoforms play a crucial role in cell survival pathways (24Whelan R.D. Parker P.J. Oncogene. 1998; 16: 1939-1944Crossref PubMed Scopus (136) Google Scholar, 26Maher P. J. Neurosci. 2001; 21: 2929-2938Crossref PubMed Google Scholar, 47Gubina E. Rinaudo M.S. Szallasi Z. Blumberg P.M. Mufson R.A. Blood. 1998; 91: 823-829Crossref PubMed Google Scholar). The mechanism by which EGCG affects the expression of PKC isoforms is being investigated.In an attempt to characterize the signaling pathways involved in 6-OHDA-induced cell death and in neuroprotection by EGCG, we examined the activity of two major MAPKs, which have been implicated in neuronal survival, ERK1/2, and JNK (21Xia Z. Dickens M. Raingeaud J. Davis R.J. Greenberg M.E. Science. 1995; 270: 1326-1331Crossref PubMed Scopus (5027) Google Scholar, 22Satoh T. Nakatsuka D. Watanabe Y. Nagata I. Kikuchi H. Namura S. Neurosci. Lett. 2000; 288: 163-166Crossref PubMed Scopus (216) Google Scholar). Activation of ERK1/2 is associated with pro-survival signaling (48Bonni A. Brunet A. West A.E. Datta S.R. Takasu M.A. Greenberg M.E. Science. 1999; 286: 1358-1362Crossref PubMed Scopus (1665) Google Scholar), whereas JNK activation has been strongly linked to apopoptotic signaling (49Yuan J. Yankner B.A. Nature. 2000; 407: 802-809Crossref PubMed Scopus (1594) Google Scholar) through phosphorylation of c-Jun (50Behrens A. Sibilia M. Wagner E.F. Nat. Genet. 1999; 21: 326-329Crossref PubMed Scopus (594) Google Scholar). The observation that ERK1/2 signaling is involved in neuronal survival has also been demonstrated in primary cortical neurons intoxicated with glutamate (29Singer C.A. Figueroa-Masot X.A. Batchelor R.H. Dorsa D.M. J. Neurosci. 1999; 19: 2455-2463Crossref PubMed Google Scholar) and in PC12 cells, in which apoptosis was induced by nerve growth factor withdrawal (21Xia Z. Dickens M. Raingeaud J. Davis R.J. Greenberg M.E. Science. 1995; 270: 1326-1331Crossref PubMed Scopus (5027) Google Scholar). Accordingly, we found that 6-OHDA decreased ERK1/2 activity, whereas treatment with EGCG prevented this effect. Further support for the role of this pathway in cell survival is provided by studies showing that activation of ERK1/2 plays a major role in the neuroprotective effect of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (51Hetman M. Kanning K. Cavanaugh J.E. Xia Z. J. Biol. Chem. 1999; 274: 22569-22580Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (501) Google Scholar) or activation of glial metabotrophic glutamate receptors (52D'Onofrio M. Cuomo L. Battaglia G. Ngomba R.T. Storto M. Kingston A.E. Orzi F., De Blasi A., Di Iorio P. Nicoletti F. Bruno V. J. Neurochem. 2001; 78: 435-445Crossref PubMed Scopus (113) Google Scholar) against drug-induced apoptosis or N-methyl-d-aspartate-induced toxicity in primary neuronal cultures, respectively. In addition, 6-OHDA caused an increase in JNK phosphorylation, but EGCG failed to prevent the activation induced by the toxin, suggesting that activation of this MAPK superfamily pathway might be necessary but not sufficient to induce neuronal apoptosis.Previous studies have shown that the neurotoxicity of 6-OHDA involves nuclear translocation of NF-κB (10Levites Y. Youdim M.B.H. Maor G. Mandel S. Biochem. Pharmacol. 2002; 63: 21-29Crossref PubMed Scopus (298) Google Scholar), increase of reactive oxygen species, activation of JNK, inhibition of complex I of the mitochondrial respiratory chain (34Glinka Y.Y. Youdim M.B. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 1995; 292: 329-332PubMed Google Scholar), and apoptotic cell death (23Chun H.S. Gibson G.E. DeGiorgio L.A. Zhang H. Kidd V.J. Son J.H. J. Neurochem. 2001; 76: 1010-1021Crossref PubMed Scopus (234) Google Scholar, 35Choi W.S. Yoon S.Y., Oh, T.H. Choi E.J. O'Malley K.L. Oh Y.J. J. Neurosci. Res. 1999; 57: 86-94Crossref PubMed Scopus (229) Google Scholar,53Maruyama W. Akao Y. Youdim M.B.H. Naoi M. J. Neural Transm. Suppl. 2000; 60: 147-162Google Scholar). The increased expression of the apoptotic-related genes and the decrease in Bcl-2, Bcl-w, and Bcl-xL mRNAs observed with 6-OHDA in our study supports previous reports and provides a wider view of the gene events implicated in 6-OHDA toxicity. The induction of the proapoptotic genes Bax and Bad can induce the release of cytochrome c from the mitochondria, culminating in activation of caspases (49Yuan J. Yankner B.A. Nature. 2000; 407: 802-809Crossref PubMed Scopus (1594) Google Scholar). Because EGCG prevented all the gene alterations induced by 6-OHDA, a conjecture could be raised suggesting a possible link between activation of PKC and ERK1/2, induction of cell survival genes, and mitochondrial function preservation. Interestingly, recent reports support a role for PKC as a functional Bcl-2 kinase that can suppress cell apoptosis, probably through direct or indirect phosphorylation of Bcl-2 (54Ruvolo P.P. Deng X. Carr B.K. May W.S. J. Biol. Chem. 1998; 273: 25436-25442Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (410) Google Scholar, 55Zhao M. Eaton J.W. Brunk U.T. FEBS Lett. 2001; 509: 405-412Crossref PubMed Scopus (57) Google Scholar). Whether EGCG activation of PKC leads to Bcl-2 phosphorylation and subsequent suppression of apoptosis remains to be determined.Our gene analysis also provides the first evidence for a selective regulation of a number of mRNAs by the low (1 μm) neuroprotective concentration of EGCG, including a decrease in Bax mRNA. Bax homodimerizes or heterodimerizes with Bcl-2 or Bcl-xL (56Yang E. Zha J. Jockel J. Boise L.H. Thompson C.B. Korsmeyer S.J. Cell. 1995; 80: 285-291Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (1883) Google Scholar). These interactions have been shown to determine the susceptibility of a cell to a death signal. Decreased Bax mRNA levels, as a result of EGCG treatment, may contribute to an increase in the ratio of Bcl-2 or Bcl-xL to Bax (57Merry D.E. Korsmeyer S.J. Annu. Rev. Neurosci. 1997; 20: 245-267Crossref PubMed Scopus (544) Google Scholar), thus suggesting potential neuroprotective/antiapoptotic features of EGCG. There is no clear evidence whether the observed inhibition of p21Waf1 and Gadd45β cell cycle regulators by EGCG may have any protective effects against oxidative stress-induced damage, because most studies have investigated their effects as tumor suppressors.Mdm2 is the major negative regulator of p53 and is itself a positive transcriptional target of p53. Its expression is often elevated subsequent to induction of p53 activity. Mdm2 is a ubiquitin ligase that targets p53 to proteasomal degradation, thus defining a negative feedback loop to regulate p53 levels (for review see Ref. 58Michael D. Oren M. Curr. Opin. Genet. Dev. 2002; 12: 53-59Crossref PubMed Scopus (242) Google Scholar). Thus, down-regulation of Mdm2 transcript by EGCG might consequently preserve intact p53 protein and also contribute to the protective action against 6-OHDA, where high Mdm2 mRNA levels were observed.In contrast to the neuroprotective properties of EGCG at low concentrations, EGCG is more often known for its antitumorigenic/pro-apoptotic properties. The cell death promotion and increased expression of pro-apoptotic and cell cycle regulator-linked genes, induced by a high EGCG concentration (50 μm), supports and extends previous reports: increased consumption of relatively high concentrations of tea polyphenols has been found to correlate with reduced incidence of certain cancers (6Yang C.S. Wang Z.Y. J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 1993; 85: 1038-1049Crossref PubMed Scopus (1005) Google Scholar) and to induce apoptosis and cell cycle arrest (59Ahmad N. Feyes D.K. Nieminen A.L. Agarwal R. Mukhtar H. J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 1997; 89: 1881-1886Crossref PubMed Scopus (727) Google Scholar). Recently, EGCG was shown to induce apoptosis of neck squamous cell carcinoma cells and to cause a decrease in phosphorylated ERK1/2, Bcl-2, and Bcl-xL proteins, an increase in Bax, and an activation of caspase 9 (60Masuda M. Suzui M. Weinstein I.B. Clin. Cancer Res. 2001; 7: 4220-4229PubMed Google Scholar). In the present work we show that high EGCG concentration also decreased ERK1/2 activity and increased that of JNK, further supporting its pro-apoptotic/antiproliferative effect. The comparative actions of EGCG, as presented in our study, at its protective and toxic concentrations is depicted in Table II.Table IIComparison of the effects of a protective (1 μm) versus a toxic (50 μm) concentration of EGCGRegulatory effectsEGCG (1 μm)EGCG (50 μm)Cell viabilityNCNeurotoxicNeuroprotective properties against6-OHDA (50 μm)NeuroprotectiveIncreased neurotoxicityMPP+ (400 μm)NeuroprotectiveIncreased neurotoxicityAβ-(25–35, 1–40, 1–42) (10 μm)2-aData not shown; NC, not changed; Aβ, β-amyloid peptide.Neuroprotective/NeurorescuingIncreased neurotoxicityCell signaling activationPKCActivationNCERK1/2NCReducedJNKNCIncreasedExpression of apoptotic/antiproliferative genesDecreasedIncreased2-a Data not shown; NC, not changed; Aβ, β-amyloid peptide. Open table in a new tab The mechanism underlying the effectiveness of EGCG against 6-OHDA neurotoxicity is not fully known but may involve several events. A hypothetical model diagramming the multiple potential targets of EGCG effects is shown in Fig. 7. (a) Direct scavenging of oxidized 6-OHDA or of oxygen species derived from 6-OHDA, because green tea polyphenols are known to be radical scavengers and iron chelators. Nevertheless, the concentrations of EGCG required for neuroprotection are far lower than those of 6-OHDA used in the assay, arguing against a simple stoichiometric reaction. This assumption is also supported by the fact that EGCG concentrations higher than 10 μm could not prevent the toxic effects of 6-OHDA and even exacerbated it (data not shown). (b) Counteracting the negative effect of 6-OHDA on both PKC and ERK1/2 pathways because alternatively ERK1/2 might be subjected to direct regulation of PKC; thus, activation of this kinase by EGCG may lead to restoration of the reduced phosphorylated ERK1/2 levels. (c) Inhibiting the translocation of NF-κB to the nucleus, as previously shown for green tea extract (10Levites Y. Youdim M.B.H. Maor G. Mandel S. Biochem. Pharmacol. 2002; 63: 21-29Crossref PubMed Scopus (298) Google Scholar). (d) Preventing the expression of cell death and cell cycle regulators genes. (e) Other mechanism(s) not yet defined.In conclusion, this study provides the first evidence of a neuroprotective mechanistic action of EGCG against 6-OHDA-induced toxicity by stimulating PKC and modulating the expression of cell survival factors. Biochemical evidence points to central roles for oxidative stress (OS)1 and inflammation in neuronal death in idiopathic Parkinson's disease (1Gerlach M. Ben-Shachar D. Riederer P. Youdim M.B.H. J. Neurochem. 1994;