Article1 July 2019Open Access Transparent process Phase separation of 53BP1 determines liquid-like behavior of DNA repair compartments Sinan Kilic Sinan Kilic orcid.org/0000-0001-5009-8884 Department of Molecular Mechanisms of Disease, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland Search for more papers by this author Aleksandra Lezaja Aleksandra Lezaja Department of Molecular Mechanisms of Disease, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland Cancer Biology PhD Program, Life Science Zurich Graduate School, Zurich, Switzerland Search for more papers by this author Marco Gatti Marco Gatti Department of Molecular Mechanisms of Disease, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland Search for more papers by this author Eliana Bianco Eliana Bianco Department of Molecular Mechanisms of Disease, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland Cancer Biology PhD Program, Life Science Zurich Graduate School, Zurich, Switzerland Search for more papers by this author Jone Michelena Jone Michelena Department of Molecular Mechanisms of Disease, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland Search for more papers by this author Ralph Imhof Ralph Imhof Department of Molecular Mechanisms of Disease, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland Search for more papers by this author Matthias Altmeyer Corresponding Author Matthias Altmeyer [email protected] orcid.org/0000-0003-3780-1170 Department of Molecular Mechanisms of Disease, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland Search for more papers by this author Sinan Kilic Sinan Kilic orcid.org/0000-0001-5009-8884 Department of Molecular Mechanisms of Disease, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland Search for more papers by this author Aleksandra Lezaja Aleksandra Lezaja Department of Molecular Mechanisms of Disease, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland Cancer Biology PhD Program, Life Science Zurich Graduate School, Zurich, Switzerland Search for more papers by this author Marco Gatti Marco Gatti Department of Molecular Mechanisms of Disease, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland Search for more papers by this author Eliana Bianco Eliana Bianco Department of Molecular Mechanisms of Disease, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland Cancer Biology PhD Program, Life Science Zurich Graduate School, Zurich, Switzerland Search for more papers by this author Jone Michelena Jone Michelena Department of Molecular Mechanisms of Disease, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland Search for more papers by this author Ralph Imhof Ralph Imhof Department of Molecular Mechanisms of Disease, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland Search for more papers by this author Matthias Altmeyer Corresponding Author Matthias Altmeyer [email protected] orcid.org/0000-0003-3780-1170 Department of Molecular Mechanisms of Disease, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland Search for more papers by this author Author Information Sinan Kilic1, Aleksandra Lezaja1,2, Marco Gatti1, Eliana Bianco1,2,3, Jone Michelena1, Ralph Imhof1 and Matthias Altmeyer *,1 1Department of Molecular Mechanisms of Disease, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland 2Cancer Biology PhD Program, Life Science Zurich Graduate School, Zurich, Switzerland 3Present address: Institute of Biochemistry, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland *Corresponding author. Tel: + 41 44 63 55 491; E-mail: [email protected] The EMBO Journal (2019)38:e101379https://doi.org/10.15252/embj.2018101379 See also: R Piccinno et al (August 2019) PDFDownload PDF of article text and main figures. Peer ReviewDownload a summary of the editorial decision process including editorial decision letters, reviewer comments and author responses to feedback. ToolsAdd to favoritesDownload CitationsTrack CitationsPermissions ShareFacebookTwitterLinked InMendeleyWechatReddit Figures & Info Abstract The DNA damage response (DDR) generates transient repair compartments to concentrate repair proteins and activate signaling factors. The physicochemical properties of these spatially confined compartments and their function remain poorly understood. Here, we establish, based on live cell microscopy and CRISPR/Cas9-mediated endogenous protein tagging, that 53BP1-marked repair compartments are dynamic, show droplet-like behavior, and undergo frequent fusion and fission events. 53BP1 assembly, but not the upstream accumulation of γH2AX and MDC1, is highly sensitive to changes in osmotic pressure, temperature, salt concentration and to disruption of hydrophobic interactions. Phase separation of 53BP1 is substantiated by optoDroplet experiments, which further allowed dissection of the 53BP1 sequence elements that cooperate for light-induced clustering. Moreover, we found the tumor suppressor protein p53 to be enriched within 53BP1 optoDroplets, and conditions that disrupt 53BP1 phase separation impair 53BP1-dependent induction of p53 and diminish p53 target gene expression. We thus suggest that 53BP1 phase separation integrates localized DNA damage recognition and repair factor assembly with global p53-dependent gene activation and cell fate decisions. Synopsis The DNA damage response effector 53BP1 forms characteristic foci at DNA breaks, which are here found to exhibit liquid droplet-like self-compartmentalization important for downstream activation of the p53 tumor suppressor. DNA repair compartments show liquid-like properties with droplet fusions and fissions. Phase separation behavior is conferred by 53BP1, and uncoupled from upstream DNA damage detection and γH2AX-MDC1 accumulation. 53BP1 assembly at break sites is abolished by changes in osmotic pressure, temperature, salt concentration, or disruption of hydrophobic interactions. 53BP1 optoDroplet experiments indicate multivalency and reveal sequence elements required for clustering. Disruption of 53BP1 phase separation impairs p53 activation and p21 induction upon DNA damage. Introduction Detection of DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs) and their faithful repair is crucial to avoid loss of genetic information and counter chromosome translocations and genomic instability. Consequently, defects in the DNA damage response (DDR) are associated with neurodegeneration, cancer, and aging, and genomic instability is a hallmark of most tumors (Jackson & Bartek, 2009). The DDR is initiated at DNA break sites by the ATM kinase, which phosphorylates histone variant H2AX to generate γH2AX (Shiloh & Ziv, 2013; Blackford & Jackson, 2017). The adaptor protein MDC1 binds γH2AX to assemble the ubiquitin E3 ligases RNF8 and RNF168 and recruit 53BP1 (Jungmichel & Stucki, 2010; Lukas et al, 2011b; Polo & Jackson, 2011; Panier & Boulton, 2014; Pellegrino & Altmeyer, 2016; Schwertman et al, 2016; Wilson & Durocher, 2017). 53BP1 generates sizeable chromatin domains, which scaffold the assembly of downstream effectors and shield DNA lesions against excessive nucleolytic digestion. Restrained resection is achieved by 53BP1-dependent recruitment of RIF1, REV7, and the Shieldin complex (Dev et al, 2018; Findlay et al, 2018; Ghezraoui et al, 2018; Gupta et al, 2018; Mirman et al, 2018; Noordermeer et al, 2018; Setiaputra & Durocher, 2019). Additionally, 53BP1 promotes cell cycle checkpoint signaling in response to DNA damage (DiTullio et al, 2002; Fernandez-Capetillo et al, 2002; Wang et al, 2002; Brummelkamp et al, 2006; Cuella-Martin et al, 2016). How 53BP1 integrates local DNA damage recognition with global checkpoint responses and why such a multilayered multi-protein assembly at DNA break sites is required to safeguard genome stability is not well understood. Liquid–liquid phase separation has recently emerged as mechanism to dynamically sub-divide the intracellular space (Hyman et al, 2014; Alberti, 2017; Banani et al, 2017; Shin & Brangwynne, 2017). Phase separation relies on multivalent weak interactions, often through intrinsically disordered protein sequences. Such interactions retain a larger conformational flexibility compared to interactions through complementary protein domain surfaces and induced fit (Aguzzi & Altmeyer, 2016; Boeynaems et al, 2018). Besides the nucleolus, nuclear speckles, and RNA granules, also silent heterochromatin domains were recently shown to phase separate within the nucleus (Larson et al, 2017; Strom et al, 2017). Moreover, phase separation occurs at gene promoters and super-enhancers (Boehning et al, 2018; Boija et al, 2018; Lu et al, 2018; Sabari et al, 2018). To which extent other chromatin domains rely on phase separation for their spatio-temporal confinement and for their biological functions is a matter of intense investigation. Although the key upstream signals for 53BP1 recruitment to sites of DNA damage are well defined, 53BP1 assembly can also be uncoupled from upstream events indicating that the hierarchical cascade of the DDR allows regulation at intermediate levels. For instance, 53BP1 assembly is precluded during mitosis, when CDK activity is high and chromosomes are heavily condensed, even though the upstream signaling and the recruitment of MDC1 are unaffected (Giunta et al, 2010; Orthwein et al, 2014). Conversely, 53BP1 can be uncoupled from upstream recruitments under conditions of deregulated RNF168 stability (Gudjonsson et al, 2012; Altmeyer & Lukas, 2013a,b). Impaired RNF168 turnover leads to greatly enlarged 53BP1 compartments, which occupy nuclear territories of several square-micrometers, reaching far beyond the γH2AX/MDC1 domain (Gudjonsson et al, 2012). These findings raise the possibility that, despite the hierarchical cascade of DDR factor recruitment, 53BP1 assembly into nuclear compartments may differ from the upstream recruitment of MDC1, and they prompted us to investigate the physicochemical properties of 53BP1 assemblies at sites of DNA lesions and how they affect 53BP1 functions. Results Multivalent weak interactions underlying phase separation are sensitive to changes in temperature, salt concentration, pH, and osmotic pressure. In order to assess how DNA repair compartments would react to changes in osmolarity, we monitored the 53BP1 response to ionizing radiation (IR) by quantitative image-based cytometry (QIBC), a high-content microscopy approach that allows for cell cycle resolved profiling of DNA damage responses (Altmeyer et al, 2013; Toledo et al, 2013; Ochs et al, 2016; Pellegrino et al, 2017; Michelena et al, 2018). As observed previously, we measured a strong IR-induced increase in nuclear 53BP1 foci in G1, which gradually declined in S-phase when increasing amounts of replicated chromatin promote DSB repair by homologous recombination (Chapman et al, 2012; Saredi et al, 2016; Pellegrino et al, 2017), and which rose again in late G2 (Fig 1A). Consistent with prior work (Giunta et al, 2010; Orthwein et al, 2014), 53BP1 accumulation was blocked when chromosomes condensed in mitosis (Fig 1B). Sorbitol-induced osmotic stress expectedly resulted in rapid formation of cytoplasmic stress granules (Appendix Fig S1A–C). Strikingly, however, sorbitol addition completely abolished the formation of nuclear 53BP1 compartments at sites of DNA damage (Fig 1C and Appendix Fig S1D). The sorbitol-induced suppression of 53BP1 assembly was comparable to siRNA-mediated depletion of the upstream 53BP1-regulator RNF168 (Appendix Fig S1E and F) and also entailed a complete abrogation of downstream RIF1 assembly at DNA break sites (Fig 1D). Similarly, addition of sucrose or elevated salt concentrations mitigated 53BP1 assembly upon DNA damage (Appendix Fig S2A and B). Live cell experiments using GFP-53BP1 cells confirmed that osmotic stress severely impaired 53BP1 assembly at DNA break sites and also disassembled preformed 53BP1 nuclear bodies at sites of spontaneous DNA lesions (Appendix Fig S2C). We observed very similar effects in non-transformed human epithelial RPE-1 and canine MDCK cells (Appendix Fig S3A and B). The osmotic challenge-induced inhibition of 53BP1 accumulation was fully reversible and was quickly restored when sorbitol was removed after DNA damage induction (Appendix Fig S3C and D). Surprisingly, neither γH2AX nor MDC1 lost their ability to accumulate around DSBs in the presence of osmotic stress, suggesting that the osmosensitivity is specific to the 53BP1 compartment (Fig EV1A and B). Furthermore, 53BP1 assembly, different from γH2AX foci formation, was sensitive to changes in temperature (Fig EV1C and D), and the salt sensitivity was also highly specific for 53BP1 compared to γH2AX (Fig EV1E and F). Figure 1. The 53BP1 repair compartment is sensitive to hyperosmotic stress Asynchronously growing human U-2 OS cells were treated with 0.5 Gy of IR, allowed to recover for the indicated time periods, and stained for 53BP1 and DNA content for cell cycle resolved quantification of 53BP1 foci in individual cells by QIBC. Representative images from the QIBC analysis in (A). Scale bars, 10 μm. Cells were treated with 0.5 Gy of IR in absence or presence of 0.4 M sorbitol, fixed 1 h later, and 53BP1 assembly at DSBs was analyzed by QIBC. Treatments as in (C); RIF1 accumulation at DSBs was analyzed by QIBC. Download figure Download PowerPoint Click here to expand this figure. Figure EV1. Compartment disassembly by osmotic stress, temperature change, and increasing salt concentration is specific for 53BP1 U-2 OS cells were irradiated with 0.5 Gy in absence or presence of 0.4 M sorbitol, fixed 1 h later, and γH2AX foci were quantified by QIBC. U-2 OS cells were irradiated with 0.5 Gy in absence or presence of 0.4 M sorbitol, fixed 1 h later, and MDC1 foci were quantified by QIBC. U-2 OS cells were irradiated with 0.5 Gy, exposed to the indicated temperature during recovery, fixed 1 h later, and 53BP1 foci were quantified by QIBC. For the same cells in (C), γH2AX foci were quantified by QIBC. U-2 OS cells were irradiated with 0.5 Gy in the presence of increasing NaCl concentrations (0, 100, 125, 150, 175 mM), fixed 1 h later and 53BP1 foci were quantified by QIBC. For the same cells in (E), γH2AX foci were quantified by QIBC. Download figure Download PowerPoint While the initial accumulation of γH2AX/MDC1 at sites of DNA damage is essential for the ensuing assembly of 53BP1, MDC1 foci induced by low, sub-lethal doses of IR or neocarzinostatin (NCS) are more transient than 53BP1 foci (Fig 2A and Appendix Fig S4A–D). Indeed, most MDC1 foci had disappeared 2–4 h after damage induction, whereas 53BP1 foci were bright and clearly visible at these later time-points (Fig 2A). Live cell experiments with cells stably expressing either GFP-MDC1 or GFP-53BP1 confirmed the transient nature of MDC1 foci formation and the more long-lived nature of 53BP1 assemblies (Fig 2B). Moreover, and consistent with previous work describing clustering of DNA breaks (Aten et al, 2004; Krawczyk et al, 2006; Neumaier et al, 2012; Roukos et al, 2013; Aymard et al, 2017; Sollazzo et al, 2018), we observed signs of coalescence of 53BP1 compartments over time upon DNA damage (Fig 3A). Comparing 53BP1 and MDC1 foci intensity and area suggested that this was more pronounced for 53BP1 (Fig 3A and B, and Appendix Fig S5A). In time-lapse microscopy experiments, DNA damage-induced 53BP1 compartments showed droplet-like behavior and underwent frequent fusion and occasional fission events (Fig 3C, and Appendix Fig S5B and C). Moreover, addition of the aliphatic alcohol 1,6-hexanediol, which disrupts weak hydrophobic interactions that are favorable for liquid–liquid phase separation (Molliex et al, 2015; Strom et al, 2017; Wegmann et al, 2018), resulted in disassembly of 53BP1 foci (Appendix Fig S5D and E). Next, in light of the concentration dependency of phase separation and to exclude potential bias from ectopic 53BP1 expression, we employed CRISPR/Cas9 to engineer the endogenous 53BP1 locus and integrate an in-frame sequence encoding for the small monomeric red fluorescent protein mScarlet (Appendix Fig S6A and B). The resulting fusion protein could be visualized by fluorescence microscopy (Appendix Fig S6C), did not affect the cell cycle (Appendix Fig S6D), localized to γH2AX-positive sites of DNA damage (Appendix Fig S6E), showed the typical cell cycle-regulated pattern of 53BP1 accumulation (Appendix Fig S6F), and was sensitive to siRNA treatment targeted against 53BP1 (Appendix Fig S6G). Consistent with our prior results, a short hyperosmotic challenge led to disassembly of 53BP1-mScarlet compartments without affecting γH2AX accumulation (Appendix Fig S6H and I). More importantly, however, live cell experiments with endogenously tagged 53BP1 expressed from its native promoter confirmed the dynamic, droplet-like nature of 53BP1 assemblies, their spherical shape, and their frequent fusions and fissions (Fig 3D and Movie EV1). Figure 2. 53BP1 compartments are more long-lived than MDC1 foci U-2 OS cells were treated with 0.5 Gy of IR, allowed to recover for the indicated time periods, stained for 53BP1 and MDC1, and analyzed by QIBC. 53BP1 foci intensities are plotted against MDC1 foci intensities, and representative images are shown. U-2 OS cells stably expressing GFP-MDC1 or GFP-53BP1 were treated with 1 Gy of IR and analyzed by live cell microscopy at 15-min intervals. Representative images are provided, and kinetics of GFP-MDC1 and GFP-53BP1 foci formation and dissolution are shown as single-cell tracks. Bold lines represent averages from n = 29 for GFP-MDC1 and n = 18 for GFP-53BP1 cells. Data information: Scale bars, 10 μm. Download figure Download PowerPoint Figure 3. 53BP1 repair compartments show droplet-like behavior with fusion and fission events U-2 OS cells were treated with 1 Gy of IR and fixed at the indicated time-points. Mean 53BP1 foci intensity was analyzed from more than 1,500 cells per time-point. Mean (solid line) and standard deviation from the mean (dashed lines) are indicated. The same cells as in (A) were analyzed for mean MDC1 foci intensity. Mean (solid line) and standard deviation from the mean (dashed lines) are indicated. GFP-53BP1 cells were treated with 25 ng/ml NCS to induce DNA breaks and imaged at 30-min intervals. Examples of GFP-53BP1 fusions (green arrowheads and magnified regions) and fissions (blue arrowheads and magnified regions) are shown. 53BP1-RFP cells, in which the endogenous 53BP1 gene locus had been engineered by CRISPR/Cas9 to express 53BP1-mScarlet from the natural promoter, were treated with NCS (25 ng/ml) and imaged at 30-min intervals. Examples of 53BP1 fusions (green arrowheads and magnified regions) and fissions (blue arrowheads and magnified regions) are shown on the left and in higher magnification on the right. GFP-53BP1 cells were left untreated, or treated with APH (0.5 μM) or ATRi (1 μM) to induce replication stress-associated heritable DNA lesions, and cells were imaged at 30-min intervals. Examples of 53BP1 fusions (green arrowheads and magnified regions) are shown. Data information: (C–E) Scale bars, 10 μm. Download figure Download PowerPoint Besides clastogen-induced DNA breaks, 53BP1 also assembles at replication stress-induced inherited DNA lesions (Harrigan et al, 2011; Lukas et al, 2011a). These 53BP1 nuclear bodies, occurring spontaneously and at enhanced frequency upon mild replication stress by low-dose aphidicolin (APH) and ATR inhibitor (ATRi) treatment, showed droplet-like behavior as well, and underwent frequent fusion events (Fig 3E). Finally, and consistent with the transient nature of MDC1 accumulation upon low levels of DNA damage (Fig 2 and Appendix Fig S4), we observed in dual labeling live cell experiments that 53BP1 fusions and fissions typically occurred after discernible foci of MDC1 had disappeared (Appendix Fig S6J). Taken together, we conclude that 53BP1 repair compartments at sites of clastogen-induced DSBs and at heritable DNA lesions show key features of liquid–liquid phase separation. In order to directly test whether 53BP1 possesses the capacity to phase separate, we turned to a system based on mCherry-labeled Arabidopsis photoreceptor cryptochrome 2 (Cry2) fusion proteins to measure target protein optoDroplet formation in living cells (Taslimi et al, 2014; Shin et al, 2017). As observed before, strong optoDroplet formation occurred for the amino-terminal prion-like domain of FUS, an established model for intracellular phase separation (Shin et al, 2017, 2018) and for an oligomerization-prone Cry2 E490G mutant (Taslimi et al, 2014), but not for the negative Cry2 wild-type control (Fig EV2A). A Cry2-53BP1 fusion, however, resulted in rapid, light-induced optoDroplet formation (Fig 4A top panel, Fig EV2B for additional examples, and Movie EV2). Introducing a single amino acid exchange (W1495A) within the 53BP1 tandem tudor domain (TTD) to abrogate potentially confounding effects from TTD chromatin and protein interactions (Drane et al, 2017), and to assess the intrinsic capacity of 53BP1 to phase separate, further enhanced light-induced optoDroplet formation (Fig 4A middle panel and Movie EV3). Different from 53BP1, Cry2-MDC1 did not show considerable optoDroplet formation (Fig 4A bottom panel and Movie EV4), even though the construct was functional and efficiently accumulated at sites of DNA damage (Fig EV2C). We noticed that a pH shift from 7.4 to 5.5 rapidly induced FUS optoDroplet formation without light induction (Fig EV2D) and that also 53BP1, but not MDC1, formed optoDroplets under acidic pH (Fig EV2E). Similar to 53BP1 assembly around DNA lesions, 53BP1 optoDroplet fusions could be readily observed, demonstrating their liquid-like behavior (Fig 4B). Click here to expand this figure. Figure EV2. 53BP1 optoDroplet formation The indicated Cry2-mCherry-fusion constructs were transfected into U-2 OS cells, activated by blue light, and optoDroplet formation was followed by time-lapse microscopy at 15-s intervals. OptoDroplets before (pre) and 6 min after light induction (post) were quantified by single-cell QIBC analysis of 100–250 cells per condition from 2 to 3 independent experiments with mean (solid line) and standard deviation from the mean (dashed lines) indicated. Additional examples for full-length wild-type Cry2-mCherry-53BP1 clustering upon light activation. Cry2-mCherry-MDC1 was transfected into U-2 OS cells, cells were exposed to NCS (25 ng/ml), fixed 1 h later, and stained for 53BP1 and γH2AX. The indicated Cry2-mCherry-fusion constructs were transfected into U-2 OS cells, exposed to HCl-adjusted medium at pH 5.5, and analyzed for optoDroplet formation 5 min later. The indicated Cry2-mCherry-fusion constructs were transfected into U-2 OS cells, exposed to HCl-adjusted medium at pH 5.5, and analyzed for optoDroplet formation 5 min later. The indicated Cry2-mCherry-fusion constructs were transfected into U-2 OS cells, activated by blue light, and optoDroplet formation was followed by time-lapse microscopy at 15-s intervals. Red bars indicate the part of 53BP1 that was expressed as Cry2-mCherry fusion. Data information: Scale bars, 10 μm. Download figure Download PowerPoint Figure 4. 53BP1 phase separates into optoDroplets Light-induced optoDroplet formation of Cry2-mCherry-53BP1, Cry2-mCherry-53BP1 W1495A, and Cry2-mCherry-MDC1. Cells were imaged at 15-s intervals. Representative images of optoDroplet formation before and 6 min after light induction are shown. Quantifications from single-cell QIBC analysis of 2–3 independent experiments are shown with mean (solid line) and standard deviation from the mean (dashed lines) indicated. Cry2-mCherry-53BP1 W1495A optoDroplet fusion at 15 s time resolution. Fusing optoDroplets are highlighted by green arrowheads and in the magnified insets. Light-induced optoDroplet formation of the indicated Cry2-mCherry-53BP1 constructs. Cells were imaged at 15-s intervals. Representative images and quantifications of optoDroplet formation before and 6 min after light induction are shown. Quantifications from single-cell QIBC analysis of 2–3 independent experiments are shown with mean (solid line) and standard deviation from the mean (dashed lines) indicated. Red bars indicate the part of 53BP1 that was expressed as Cry2-mCherry fusion. Data information: Scale bars, 10 μm. Download figure Download PowerPoint Next, we generated a series of deletion mutants to identify the sequence elements driving 53BP1 phase separation. This revealed that the C-terminus, comprising amino acids 1140–1972, was sufficient for optoDroplet formation and that the oligomerization domain (OD) was critically involved (Figs 4C and EV2F). Interestingly, the largely unstructured N-terminus of 53BP1 was dispensable for optoDroplet formation, suggesting that the presence of disordered sequence stretches alone may not be a good predictor for phase separation. Recent work on the FET (FUS, EWSR1, TAF15) protein family identified multivalent interactions between tyrosines (Y) and arginines (R) to promote phase separation (Wang et al, 2018). The 53BP1 C-terminus is highly enriched for these amino acids (Appendix Fig S7A), providing a potential explanation for the preferential optoDroplet formation of this region. The OD alone showed strong clustering inside the nucleus yet with abrogated light responsiveness (Fig 4C). When combined with unstructured sequence stretches further toward the C-terminus, however, light-inducible clustering was restored (Figs 4C and EV2F). Surprisingly, we also observed a positive contribution of the C-terminal BRCT domains (Fig 4C), whose function for recruitment and DNA repair by NHEJ has remained ambiguous (Morales et al, 2003; Ward et al, 2006; Kilkenny et al, 2008; Lee et al, 2010; Noon et al, 2010; Bothmer et al, 2011; Lottersberger et al, 2013; Knobel et al, 2014; Baldock et al, 2015; Kleiner et al, 2015; Cuella-Martin et al, 2016). Multiple sequence elements within the Y/R-rich 53BP1 C-terminus thus seem to cooperate for 53BP1 self-assembly. We focused our further analyses on a construct with the most pronounced light-inducible optoDroplet formation (aa 1203–1972 W1495A). Also with this construct, we observed droplet fusions (Fig 5A), as well as concentration-dependent droplet induction (Fig 5B). In support of the reversibility of 53BP1 assembly, acidic pH-induced optoDroplets were quickly resolved upon buffer exchange back to neutral pH (Appendix Fig S7B) and upon addition of 1,6-hexanediol (Appendix Fig S7C). In fluorescence recovery after photobleaching (FRAP) experiments, individual 53BP1 optoDroplets, 53BP1 nuclear bodies, and IR-induced foci (IRIF) all showed similar recovery kinetics, suggesting a comparable degree of protein mobility (Fig EV3A–D). Figure 5. 53BP1 self-assembles at nucleation centers in a concentration-dependent manner Cry2-mCherry-53BP1 1203–1972 W1495A optoDroplets undergo fusion events upon light induction. Fusing optoDroplets are highlighted by green arrowheads and in the magnified insets. Concentration-dependent optoDroplet formation exemplified by two neighboring cells that differ in their Cry2-mCherry-53BP1 1203–1972 W1495A expression level. Cells were imaged at 15-s intervals. Quantifications of optoDroplet formation in lowly expressing cells (mClow) and highly expressing cells (mChigh) from single-cell QIBC analysis of three independent experiments are shown with mean (solid line) and standard deviation from the mean (dashed lines) indicated. Cry2-mEGFP-53BP1 1203–1972 W1495A assembles into FokI-induced DNA repair compartments within seconds after light induction. FokI was induced for 1 h where indicated before cells were light-activated and imaged at 15-s intervals. Red arrowheads mark the FokI-induced lesion with mCherry accumulation. Data information: Scale bars, 10 μm. Download figure Download PowerPoint Click here to expand this figure. Figure EV3. FRAP analysis of 53BP1 nuclear bodies, IR-induced foci, and optoDroplets U-2 OS cells stably expressing GFP-53BP1 were bleached in the nucleoplasm and fluorescence recovery was monitored. U-2 OS cells stably expressing GFP-53BP1 were bleached at individual replication stress-associated 53BP1 nuclear bodies and fluorescence recovery was monitored. U-2 OS cells stably expressing GFP-53BP1 were irradiated with 1 Gy, allowed to recover for 1–2 h, bleached at individual 53BP1 foci, and fluorescence recovery was monitored. U-2 OS cells transfected with Cry2-mCherry-53BP1 (1203–1972 W1495A) were light-activated to induce optoDroplets, individual droplets were bleached and fluorescence recovery was monitored. Between 12 and 20 cells were analyzed for each condition. Data information: Scale bars, 10 μm. Download figure Download PowerPoint In vitro, the purified 53BP1 C-terminus showed condensation into μm-sized droplets in presence of Ficoll (Fig EV4A and B), and 53BP1 condensates co-assembled DSB-mimicking fluorescently labeled DNA (Fig EV4C and D). In vivo, the W1495A construct, despite being impaired in DNA damage recognition when multiple breaks were induced at random genomic regions by NCS (Appendix Fig S8A), accumulated within seconds after light activation at FokI-induced DNA damage at a single genomic region (Fig 5C and Appendix Fig S8B and C), consistent with a seeding-dependent yet self-assembly amplified accrual of 53BP1 to generate the DNA repair compartment. Similar conclusions were recently reached when liquid phase behavior was analyzed by global versus local activation of photo-oligomerizable nucleation centers (Bracha et al, 2018). Click here to expand this figure. Figure EV4. The 53BP1 C-terminus phase separates in vitro Purified 53BP1 1203–1972 W1495A forms protein condensates in Ficoll. Purified unlabeled 53BP1 1203–1972 W1495A and an mCherry-labeled version were mixed at a 9:1 ratio, exposed to Ficoll and analyzed fo