Antigen presenting cells recognize pathogens via pattern recognition receptors (PRR), which upon ligation transduce intracellular signals that can induce innate immune responses. Because some C-type lectin-like receptors (e.g. dectin-1 and DCSIGN) were shown to act as PRR for particular microbes, we considered a similar role for dectin-2. Binding assays using soluble dectin-2 receptors showed the extracellular domain to bind preferentially to hyphal (rather than yeast/conidial) components of Candida albicans, Microsporum audouinii, and Trichophyton rubrum. Selective binding for hyphae was also observed using RAW macrophages expressing dectin-2, the ligation of which by hyphae or cross-linking with dectin-2-specific antibody led to protein tyrosine phosphorylation. Because dectin-2 lacks an intracellular signaling motif, we searched for a signal adaptor that permits it to transduce intracellular signals. First, we found that the Fc receptor γ (FcRγ) chain can bind to dectin-2. Second, ligation of dectin-2 on RAW cells induced tyrosine phosphorylation of FcRγ, activation of NF-κB, internalization of a surrogate ligand, and up-regulated secretion of tumor necrosis factor α and interleukin-1 receptor antagonist. Finally, these dectin-2-induced events were blocked by PP2, an inhibitor of Src kinases that are mediators for FcRγ chain-dependent signaling. We conclude that dectin-2 is a PRR for fungi that employs signaling through FcRγ to induce innate immune responses. Antigen presenting cells recognize pathogens via pattern recognition receptors (PRR), which upon ligation transduce intracellular signals that can induce innate immune responses. Because some C-type lectin-like receptors (e.g. dectin-1 and DCSIGN) were shown to act as PRR for particular microbes, we considered a similar role for dectin-2. Binding assays using soluble dectin-2 receptors showed the extracellular domain to bind preferentially to hyphal (rather than yeast/conidial) components of Candida albicans, Microsporum audouinii, and Trichophyton rubrum. Selective binding for hyphae was also observed using RAW macrophages expressing dectin-2, the ligation of which by hyphae or cross-linking with dectin-2-specific antibody led to protein tyrosine phosphorylation. Because dectin-2 lacks an intracellular signaling motif, we searched for a signal adaptor that permits it to transduce intracellular signals. First, we found that the Fc receptor γ (FcRγ) chain can bind to dectin-2. Second, ligation of dectin-2 on RAW cells induced tyrosine phosphorylation of FcRγ, activation of NF-κB, internalization of a surrogate ligand, and up-regulated secretion of tumor necrosis factor α and interleukin-1 receptor antagonist. Finally, these dectin-2-induced events were blocked by PP2, an inhibitor of Src kinases that are mediators for FcRγ chain-dependent signaling. We conclude that dectin-2 is a PRR for fungi that employs signaling through FcRγ to induce innate immune responses. To initiate immune responses against infection, antigen presenting cells (APC) 4The abbreviations used are: APC, antigen presenting cells; Ab, antibody; mAb, monoclonal antibody; CLR, C-type lectin-like receptors; DC, dendritic cells; EMSA, electromobility shift assay; FcRγ, Fc receptor γ; IL-1ra, interleukin-1 receptor antagonist; ITAM, immunoreceptor tyrosine-based activation motif; m.o.i., multiplication of infection; PRR, pattern recognition receptors; TLR, toll-like receptor; TNFα, tumor necrosis factor α; FITC, fluorescein isothiocyanate; TRITC, tetramethylrhodamine isothiocyanate; BSA, bovine serum albumin; PBS, phosphate-buffered saline; DPBS, Dulbecco's PBS; FCS, fetal calf serum; FACS, fluorescence-activated cell sorter; LPS, lipopolysaccharide; HBSS, Hanks' balanced salt solution. 4The abbreviations used are: APC, antigen presenting cells; Ab, antibody; mAb, monoclonal antibody; CLR, C-type lectin-like receptors; DC, dendritic cells; EMSA, electromobility shift assay; FcRγ, Fc receptor γ; IL-1ra, interleukin-1 receptor antagonist; ITAM, immunoreceptor tyrosine-based activation motif; m.o.i., multiplication of infection; PRR, pattern recognition receptors; TLR, toll-like receptor; TNFα, tumor necrosis factor α; FITC, fluorescein isothiocyanate; TRITC, tetramethylrhodamine isothiocyanate; BSA, bovine serum albumin; PBS, phosphate-buffered saline; DPBS, Dulbecco's PBS; FCS, fetal calf serum; FACS, fluorescence-activated cell sorter; LPS, lipopolysaccharide; HBSS, Hanks' balanced salt solution. must recognize and react to microbes. Recognition is achieved by interaction of particular surface receptors on APC with corresponding surface molecules on infectious agents (1Gordon S. Cell. 2002; 111: 927-930Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (934) Google Scholar). Complement and Fc receptors bind microbes coated with opsonin (1Gordon S. Cell. 2002; 111: 927-930Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (934) Google Scholar). By contrast, pattern recognition receptors (PRR) recognize and interact with pathogens directly (1Gordon S. Cell. 2002; 111: 927-930Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (934) Google Scholar, 2Barton G.M. Medzhitov R. Curr. Opin. Immunol. 2002; 14: 380-383Crossref PubMed Scopus (292) Google Scholar). PRR include the following: (a) scavenger receptors that bind low density lipoproteins or lipid A on some bacteria (3Gough P.J. Gordon S. Microbes Infect. 2000; 2: 305-311Crossref PubMed Scopus (147) Google Scholar); (b) toll-like receptors (TLR) that bind zymosan, Staphylococcus aureus, lipopolysaccharide (LPS), bacterial flagellin, or CpG bacterial DNA (4Janssens S. Beyaert R. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 2003; 16: 637-646Crossref PubMed Scopus (450) Google Scholar, 6Underhill D.M. Eur. J. Immunol. 2003; 33: 1767-1775Crossref PubMed Scopus (197) Google Scholar); and (c) C-type lectin-like receptors (CLR) that bind carbohydrate moieties of many pathogens (1Gordon S. Cell. 2002; 111: 927-930Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (934) Google Scholar, 7Weis W.I. Taylor M.E. Drickamer K. Immunol. Rev. 1998; 163: 19-34Crossref PubMed Scopus (887) Google Scholar). CLR include the following: (a) mannose receptors for mannose or its polymers (8Stahl P.D. Ezekowitz R.A. Curr. Opin. Immunol. 1998; 10: 50-55Crossref PubMed Scopus (545) Google Scholar); (b) mannose-binding lectins for encapsulated group B or C meningococci (9Jack D.L. Klein N.J. Turner M.W. Immunol. Rev. 2001; 180: 86-99Crossref PubMed Scopus (279) Google Scholar); (c) DC-SIGN and structurally related receptors (DC-SIGNR) for mannose on human immunodeficiency virus, Leishmania, and Mycobacteria (9Jack D.L. Klein N.J. Turner M.W. Immunol. Rev. 2001; 180: 86-99Crossref PubMed Scopus (279) Google Scholar, 14Geijtenbeek T.B. Engering A. Van K.Y. J. Leukocyte Biol. 2002; 71: 921-931PubMed Google Scholar); and (d) dectin-1 for β-glucan on yeasts (15Brown G.D. Herre J. Williams D.L. Willment J.A. Marshall A.S. Gordon S. J. Exp. Med. 2003; 197: 1119-1124Crossref PubMed Scopus (993) Google Scholar, 16Brown G.D. Gordon S. Nature. 2001; 413: 36-37Crossref PubMed Scopus (1298) Google Scholar). Binding of pathogens to particular PRR transduce intracellular signals and biologic consequences that may overlap, even synergize, with those of other PRR. For example, ligation of TLR2 alone on macrophages by zymosan (containing β-glucan) led to secretion of IL-12 and TNFα, and ligation of dectin-1 alone by zymosan resulted in production of reactive oxygen species (but not of IL-12 nor TNFα), whereas coligation of TLR-2 and dectin-1 by zymosan enhanced secretion of IL-12 and TNFα at levels higher than those induced by TLR-2 alone (17Gantner B.N. Simmons R.M. Canavera S.J. Akira S. Underhill D.M. J. Exp. Med. 2003; 197: 1107-1117Crossref PubMed Scopus (1324) Google Scholar). On the other hand, ligation of DC-SIGN on dendritic cells (DC) inhibited TLR-induced IL-12 expression, while stimulating IL-10 expression (12Geijtenbeek T.B. Van Vliet S.J. Koppel E.A. Sanchez-Hernandez M. Vandenbroucke-Grauls C.M. Appelmelk B. van Kooyk Y. J. Exp. Med. 2003; 197: 7-17Crossref PubMed Scopus (895) Google Scholar). Subtractive cDNA cloning of the XS52 line of epidermal Langerhans cell-like DC (18Xu S. Ariizumi K. Caceres-Dittmar G. Edelbaum D. Hashimoto K. Bergstresser P.R. Takashima A. J. Immunol. 1995; 154: 2697-2705PubMed Google Scholar) minus J774 macrophages led us to discover dectin-1 (19Ariizumi K. Shen G.L. Ritter R. II I Kumamoto T. Edelbaum D. Morita A. Bergstresser P.R. Takashima A. J. Biol. Chem. 2000; 275: 20157-20167Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (379) Google Scholar) and dectin-2 (20Ariizumi K. Shen G.L. Shikano S. Ritter R. II I Zukas P. Edelbaum D. Morita A. Takashima A. J. Biol. Chem. 2000; 275: 11957-11963Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (140) Google Scholar). Both are type II-configured transmembrane proteins with extracellular domains containing a carbohydrate recognition domain highly conserved among C-type lectins (19Ariizumi K. Shen G.L. Ritter R. II I Kumamoto T. Edelbaum D. Morita A. Bergstresser P.R. Takashima A. J. Biol. Chem. 2000; 275: 20157-20167Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (379) Google Scholar, 20Ariizumi K. Shen G.L. Shikano S. Ritter R. II I Zukas P. Edelbaum D. Morita A. Takashima A. J. Biol. Chem. 2000; 275: 11957-11963Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (140) Google Scholar). Dectin-1 is expressed widely by APC (21Taylor P.R. Brown G.D. Reid D.M. Willment J.A. Martinez-Pomares L. Gordon S. Wong S.Y. J. Immunol. 2002; 169: 3876-3882Crossref PubMed Scopus (528) Google Scholar) and is a PRR for β-glucan in yeasts (15Brown G.D. Herre J. Williams D.L. Willment J.A. Marshall A.S. Gordon S. J. Exp. Med. 2003; 197: 1119-1124Crossref PubMed Scopus (993) Google Scholar). Dectin-2 is constitutively expressed at very high levels by mature DC and can be inducibly expressed on macrophages after activation (20Ariizumi K. Shen G.L. Shikano S. Ritter R. II I Zukas P. Edelbaum D. Morita A. Takashima A. J. Biol. Chem. 2000; 275: 11957-11963Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (140) Google Scholar, 22Taylor P.R. Reid D.M. Heinsbroek S.E. Brown G.D. Gordon S. Wong S.Y. Eur. J. Immunol. 2005; 35: 2163-2174Crossref PubMed Scopus (109) Google Scholar). Here we report that dectin-2 is a PRR for fungi that employ Fc receptor γ (FcRγ) chain signaling to induce internalization, activate NF-κB, and up-regulate production of TNFα and IL-1ra. Microbial Cell Cultures—We obtained Candida albicans (ATCC 10231 and 14053), Microsporum audouinii (ATCC 10008), Trichophyton rubrum (ATCC 14001), and Pseudomonas aeruginosa (ATCC 10145) from the American Type Culture Collection; Escherichia coli DH5α from Invitrogen; Staphylococcus aureus without protein A from Molecular Probes Inc. (Eugene, OR); Saccharomyces cerevisiae Y187 from Clontech; and group A Streptococci from the Section of Infectious Disease, Department of Pediatrics, the University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center (Dallas, TX). Each microbial strain was grown in media recommended by the ATCC. C. albicans yeast transformed to pseudohyphae (herein referred to as hyphae) as follows. Freshly prepared yeast was resuspended in Hanks' balanced salt solution (HBSS) containing 1.25 mm CaCl2, 1 mm MgCl2, 10 mm HEPES, pH 7.2, and 10% heat-inactivated FCS, seeded on 96-well plates or ELISA plates (2-4 × 105 cells/well), and then incubated at 37 °C for 90 min. Construction of Expression Vectors—To produce soluble dectin-1 and dectin-2 receptors, we inserted a nucleotide fragment encoding the extracellular domain of either molecule into an expression vector, pSTB-Fc (23Shikano S. Bonkobara M. Zukas P.K. Ariizumi K. J. Biol. Chem. 2001; 276: 8125-8134Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (148) Google Scholar), that allows secretion of the Fc portion of human IgG1 into the culture supernatant of mammalian cells. Respective nucleotide fragments encoding for extracellular domains of dectin-1 and dectin-2 were obtained by PCR amplification of the full-length cDNA with primers containing BamHI (forward primer) and XbaI (reverse primer) restriction enzyme sites at the 5′-end for dectin-1 or containing HindIII and XbaI sites for dectin-2. PCR fragments remaining after digestion with restriction enzymes were linked separately in-frame to the 5′-end of a nucleotide for the Fc in pSTB-Fc (pSTB-Dec1-Fc or pSTB-Dec2-Fc). Lentiviral vectors encoding dectin-2 or dectin-1 tagged with the C-terminal V5 epitope were also constructed. Full-length dectin-2- or dectin-1-coding sequence was excised from an original cDNA clone (20Ariizumi K. Shen G.L. Shikano S. Ritter R. II I Zukas P. Edelbaum D. Morita A. Takashima A. J. Biol. Chem. 2000; 275: 11957-11963Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (140) Google Scholar) by PCR amplification with the forward primer containing a HindIII (or BamHI) restriction site and the reverse primer containing an ApaI site linked to a sequence (TACCCCTACGACGTGCCCGACTACGCC) encoding for a V5 epitope (GKPIPNPLLGLDST) at the 5′-end. Using these restriction sites, the PCR product was inserted into a mammalian expression vector, pcDNA3.1 (Invitrogen) (pcDNA-Dec2V5 or pcDNA-Dec1V5). The nucleotide sequence for dectin-2-V5 (or dectin-1-V5) was excised from pcDNA-Dec2V5 (or pcDNA-Dec1V5) by restriction enzyme digestion with PmeI (a blunt end cutter) and NotI. The lentiviral vector plasmid, pHR-SIN-CSGW dlNotI (24Palmowski M.J. Lopes L. Ikeda Y. Salio M. Cerundolo V. Collins M.K. J. Immunol. 2004; 172: 1582-1587Crossref PubMed Scopus (92) Google Scholar) (gift from Y. Ikeda, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN), was digested with BamHI and NotI restriction enzymes to remove a nucleotide encoding enhanced green fluorescent protein. After end-filling the BamHI site with Klenow fragments, the lentiviral vector was ligated to the nucleotide for dectin-2-V5 (or dectin-1-V5) using the blunt end and the NotI site. Preparation of infectious particles and their titration were performed according to established protocols (25Zufferey R. Nagy D. Mandel R.J. Naldini L. Trono D. Nat. Biotechnol. 1997; 15: 871-875Crossref PubMed Scopus (1563) Google Scholar). Mouse FcRγ chain expression vector (pcDNA-mγchain) was constructed as follows. Total RNA prepared from RAW264.7 macrophages was reverse-transcribed to the cDNA form and amplified using upper (5′-ATCGGATCCATGATCTCAGCCGTGATCTTG-3′, where boldface letters indicate EcoRI site) and lower (5′-GAATTCCTACTGGGGTGGTTTTTCATGC-3′, BamHI) primers. The resulting PCR product (260 bp) was inserted into pcDNA3.1 using EcoRI and BamHI sites. To determine how dectin-2 associates with the FcRγ chain, we constructed dectin-2 mutants as follows. Mutant R17V with arginine replaced by valine (point mutation) at amino acid 17 of the transmembrane domain was generated following instructions from the QuikChange site-directed mutagenesis kit (Stratagene, La Jolla, CA) using the forward primer (5′-GGAGTCTGCTGGACCCTGGTACTCTGGTCAGCTGCTGTG-3′, boldface letter indicates the mutated nucleotide), and the reverse primer (5′-CACAGCAGCTGACCAGAGTACCAGGGTCCAGCAGACTCC-3′). Mutant ΔICD lacking the entire intracellular domain (amino acids 1-14) was generated by PCR amplification using the forward primer (5′-CGAAGCTTGCCACCATGACCCTGAGACTCTGGTCA-3′) containing the HindIII site (in boldface) and the reverse primer (5′-TGTGTCCTCGAGTAGGTAAATCTTCTTCATTTC-3′) containing the XhoI site. The resulting PCR fragment was ligated to the HindIII and XhoI sites of pcDNA-V5 vector that encodes the C-terminal V5 epitope. The same strategy using a different forward primer (5′-CCCAAGCTT (HindIII) GCCACCATGCAAGGGAAGGGAGTC-3′) was used to generate mutant Δ1/2ICD in which half the N-terminal intracellular domain (amino acids 1-7) is deleted. Finally, the chimeric mutant 40LECD was generated by fusing the intracellular and transmembrane domains of dectin-2 to the extracellular domain of CD40 ligand (CD40L). A nucleotide fragment coding for the two domains of dectin-2 was extracted from dectin-2 cDNA by PCR amplification using the forward primer (5′-CGGCTAGC(NheI site)GCCACCATGGTGCAGGAAAGACAA-3′) and the reverse primer (5′-CGAAGCTT(HindIII)TTGGTAAGTCACCACACAGCT-3′). A fragment for the extracellular domain of CD40L was prepared using the forward primer (5′-CGAAGCTT(HindIII) ATAGAAGATTGGATAAGGTC-3′) and the reverse primer (5′-TGTGTCCTCGAG(XhoI)GAGTTTGAGTAAGCC-3′). The two fragments were then subcloned in the NheIXhoI sites of pcDNA-V5 vector. Nucleotide sequences of all mutants were confirmed by sequencing. Gene Delivery to Mammalian Cells—COS-1 cells (5 × 105 cells/dish) were treated with an expression vector DNA (2 μg) and 6 μg of FuGENE 6 (Roche Applied Science) and then cultured for 2-3 days. RAW264.7 cells (5 × 105) were infected with lentivirus encoding dectin-2-V5 (or dectin-1-V5) at a multiplication of infection (m.o.i.) of 20. The next day, the infected cells were enriched for surface expression of dectin-2-V5 (or dectin-1-V5) using immuno-magnetic beads. After blocking Fc receptors with 5 μg/ml Fc block (Pharmingen), infected RAW cells (5 × 105) were incubated with mouse anti-V5 Ab (2 μg/ml; Serotec, Raleigh, NC) and biotinylated goat anti-mouse IgG (5 μg/ml, Jackson ImmunoResearch, West Grove, PA) on ice for 60 min and treated with streptavidin-coated magnetic beads (Miltenyi, Auburn, CA). Bead-bound cells were collected and cultured in RPMI 1640 supplemented with 10% FCS. This enrichment was repeated 3-4 times, followed by analysis of the purity of the cell suspension by FACS. Greater than 90% of RAW cells expressed dectin-2-V5 (or dectin-1-V5) on their surfaces (Fig. 3B). Purification of Fc Fusion Proteins—Three days after transfecting COS-1 cells with expression vectors for Fc fusion proteins, the culture supernatant was recovered, and Fc fusion proteins were purified by affinity chromatography as described previously (23Shikano S. Bonkobara M. Zukas P.K. Ariizumi K. J. Biol. Chem. 2001; 276: 8125-8134Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (148) Google Scholar). The protein concentrations of Fc fusion preparations were measured using the Bradford method and purity assessed by SDS-PAGE/Coomassie Brilliant Blue staining (single band) and by Western blotting (reactivity for anti-dectin-2 Ab). Binding Assays for Microbes—Aliquots of freshly cultured bacteria (0.1 OD600), S. cerevisiae and C. albicans yeasts (0.5-1 × 106 cells each), or hyphae (4 × 105 cells) were washed with Dulbecco's PBS (DPBS) and incubated with staining buffer (0.1% BSA, 2 mm CaCl2, DPBS) containing 20 μg/ml Fc proteins on ice for 1 h. After extensive washing with buffer, cells were resuspended in 5 μg/ml of biotinylated goat anti-human IgG F(ab′)2 Ab (Jackson ImmunoResearch) on ice for 30 min, followed by incubation with 1:200-diluted FITC-avidin (Vector Laboratories Inc., Burlingame, CA). We also stained filamentous fungi (M. audouinii, and T. rubrum) as follows. Single colonies of fungi were grown on Sabouroud's agar plates, harvested, and suspended in DPBS. After washing with DPBS and with water, small aliquots were spotted on slide glass, air-dried, and stained with Fc proteins as before. Binding of Fc proteins to microbes was examined using a Zeiss LSM510 laser scanning confocal microscope with 488 nm excitation and transmitted light detection (Carl Zeiss Microimaging, Thornwood, NY). Quantitative Binding Assays—Fc protein (20 or 40 μg) was iodinated with 200 or 400 μCi of Na125I (ICN Biomedicals, Aurora, OH) at room temperature for 10 min in the presence of a rehydrated IODO-BEADs (Pierce). The reaction was stopped by removing the beads and diluting with 0.1% BSA/DPBS, followed by dialysis with CaCl2/DPBS until background levels of radioactivity were detected in the dialysis buffer. Radioactivity incorporated into Fc protein was measured by 125I cpm in the trichloroacetic acid-insoluble fraction. Specific activity was expressed as incorporated cpm/total input/μg (typically 1-2 × 106 cpm/μg). Iodinated Fc proteins were used to quantitate binding of Fc proteins to C. albicans. Freshly cultured yeasts (5 × 105 cells) or hyphae (4 × 105 cells) were incubated with different doses of 125I-labeled Fc protein on ice for 1 h (two sets in triplicate). After extensive washing with CaCl2/DPBS, one set was left untreated, air-dried, and measured for radioactivity bound to C. albicans using a γ-counter. The other set was incubated with acidic buffer (0.15 m NaCl, 0.1 m glycine-HCl buffer, pH 2.3) or 10 mm EDTA (for Ca2+-dependent binding) on ice for 5 min, followed by washing. Residual radioactivity was regarded as background. Specific binding was expressed as the counts/min left after subtracting average background counts/min from untreated counts/min. The amount of Fc proteins bound to C. albicans was calculated as specific binding cpm/specific activity of 125I-Fc protein. For experiments measuring specific binding of Dec2-Fc to hyphae, hyphae (2 × 105 cells) were pretreated with various concentrations of Fc protein on ice for 1 h (triplicate). After removing unbound Fc proteins by washing, 1 μg/ml of 125I-Dec2-Fc was added to pretreated and untreated hyphae and then incubated on ice for another 1 h. A set of tubes was incubated with 125I-Dec2-Fc in the presence of 10 mm EDTA, and Ca2+-dependent binding activity was calculated as before. The ability of polysaccharide to inhibit Dec1-Fc or Dec2-Fc binding to hyphae or yeasts was assayed as follows: yeast or hyphae (1 × 106 or 2 × 105 cells/ELISA well) were washed with 0.1% BSA/DPBS/CaCl2 and incubated with 125 I-Dec1-Fc or 125I-Dec2-Fc (1 μg/ml) in the presence of laminarin or mannan (both from Sigma) on ice for 1 h. After extensive washing, C. albicans-bound and background radioactivities were measured as before. Binding of Transfectants to C. albicans—The following procedures were followed for binding of COS-1 transfectants to C. albicans hyphae. A day after transfecting COS-1 cells with expression vectors for full-length dectin-1-V5 or dectin-2-V5, or an empty vector, cells were re-seeded on 60-mm culture dishes (5 × 105 cells/dish) and metabolically labeled with [3H]thymidine (ICN Biochemicals, 1 μCi/dish) for 16 h. Cells were then harvested by pipetting in 0.02% EDTA/DPBS. After washing with 10% FCS/RPMI (cRPMI), specific activity of labeled cells (cpm/cell) was determined. Cells in increasing numbers were added to hyphae grown in 96-well plates (2 × 105 cells/well, in triplicate) and cultured in a CO2 incubator at 37 °C for 1 h. Amphotericin B (Sigma) was added to block fungal growth (final concentration of 2.5 μg/ml). Unbound COS-1 cells were removed by washing with cRPMI 10 times; cells bound to hyphae were lysed by incubation with 0.3% Triton X-100/PBS (200 μl/well) at room temperature for 20 min. For binding of RAW cells to C. albicans hyphae, the RAW parental cells or those expressing dectin-1-V5 or dectin-2-V5 were metabolically labeled with [3H]thymidine (1 μCi/culture) by overnight incubation. After measuring specific radioactivity (cpm/cell), labeled cells (3 × 104 cells/well) were incubated in ELISA wells just treated with 0.1% BSA/PBS or where hyphae were grown (104 cells/well). After culturing at 37 °C for 30 min, wells were washed with 0.1% BSA/PBS 10 times and lysed with 100 μl of 0.3% Triton X-100/PBS, and 3H counts were determined. The number of cells adherent to a well was computed by dividing 3H counts/min from a well by specific activity. For binding of RAW cells to C. albicans yeasts (26Gantner B.N. Simmons R.M. Underhill D.M. EMBO J. 2005; 24: 1277-1286Crossref PubMed Scopus (509) Google Scholar), freshly grown yeasts were washed twice with PBS and resuspended in 0.1 mg/ml FITC (Sigma) at room temperature for 1 h. After extensive washing, FITC-labeled yeasts were resuspended in 10% FCS-HBSS. RAW cells (5 × 105) were incubated with FITC-labeled yeasts at indicated m.o.i. values for 30 min at room temperature. After removing unbound yeasts by extensive washing, cells were fixed with 1% paraformaldehyde for 1 h at 4 °C, washed, and then analyzed using FACSCalibur (BD Biosciences). Histograms were made from fluorescent signals after removal of free FITC-yeasts by gating out the small sized population using forward/side scatter analysis. Immunoprecipitation and Western Blotting—To measure protein expression of dectin molecules in RAW cells, whole cell extracts were prepared from cells by lysis in RIPA buffer (0.05 m Tris-HCl, pH 7.5, 0.15 m NaCl, 1% Triton X-100, 1% sodium deoxycholate, 0.1% SDS, 20 mm EDTA) and subsequent centrifugation at 16,000 × g for 20 min at 4 °C. Small aliquots were applied to 4 -20% SDS-PAGE, then transferred to a polyvinylidene difluoride membrane (Hybond P; Amersham Biosciences), followed by immunoblotting using mouse anti-V5 Ab (0.5 μg/ml), affinity-purified rabbit anti-dectin-1 oligopeptide (1 μg/ml) (19Ariizumi K. Shen G.L. Ritter R. II I Kumamoto T. Edelbaum D. Morita A. Bergstresser P.R. Takashima A. J. Biol. Chem. 2000; 275: 20157-20167Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (379) Google Scholar), or rat anti-dectin-2 mAb (0.5 μg/ml) (20Ariizumi K. Shen G.L. Shikano S. Ritter R. II I Zukas P. Edelbaum D. Morita A. Takashima A. J. Biol. Chem. 2000; 275: 11957-11963Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (140) Google Scholar) diluted with TTBS (20 mm Tris-HCl, pH 7.6, 137 mm NaCl, 0.1% Tween 20). After washing, the membrane was blotted further with horseradish peroxidase-conjugated secondary Ab and then developed using the ECL Plus system (Amersham Biosciences). For protein tyrosine phosphorylation, RAW cells (2.5 × 106) were starved by culturing for 1 h in serum-free DMEM, incubated at 37 °C for 1 h, and cocultured with yeast or hyphae (7.5 × 106 each) in 24-well plates. At different time points after incubation at 37 °C, cells were chilled on ice and lysed by addition of 10× lysis buffer (20 mm Tris-HCl, pH 7.6, 10% Triton X-100, 10 mm sodium orthovanadate, 10 mm EDTA) to terminate phosphorylation. The clear lysate was prepared by centrifugation at 14,000 rpm for 20 min and subjected to Western blot analysis using 1:1,000-diluted horseradish peroxidase anti-phosphotyrosine Ab (PY-plus, Zymed Laboratories Inc.). To examine association of dectin-2 with the FcRγ chain, whole cell extracts were prepared from Dec2V5-RAW or parental macrophages (1 × 106 cells) using a lysis buffer (1% Brij 55, 50 mm Tris-HCl, pH 7.6, 1 mm Na2VO4, 50 mm NaF, proteinase inhibitor mixture (Sigma)) and incubated with mouse anti-V5 (2 μg) or mouse anti-human FcRγ chain 7D3.5 mAb (Note: the mAb we originally developed has cross-reactivity to mouse FcRγ) (3 μg) at 4 °C for 16 h, followed by precipitation with 10 μl of 50% slurry protein G-agarose (Roche Applied Science). After washing the agarose beads, the immunoprecipitates were dissociated from the beads by boiling and then subjected to Western blotting using anti-FcRγ Ab or rat anti-dectin-2 mAb (each 2 μg/ml). The interaction was also examined in COS-1 cells (1 × 106 cells) cotransfected with two expression vectors encoding for dectin-2-V5 and FcRγ (pcDNA-mγchain), respectively. To measure phosphorylation of the FcRγ chain, Dec2V5-RAW or RAW parental cells (1 × 106 cells in 100 μl of PBS) were incubated with anti-V5 Ab (5 μg/ml) at 4 °C for 40 min. After extensive washing, cells were treated with goat antimouse IgG (20 μg/ml) at 37 °C at various time periods and lysed using 100 μl of 2× lysis buffer (1% Triton X-100, 50 mm Tris-HCl, pH 7.6, 1 mm Na2VO4, 50 mm NaF, proteinase inhibitor mix (Sigma)). In some experiments, RAW cells were pretreated with PP2 or PP3 kinase inhibitor at 37 °C for 2 h. Protein extracts were prepared, immunoprecipitated with anti-FcRγ chain Ab, and then blotted with anti-phosphotyrosine Ab 4G10 (1 μg/ml) (Upstate Cell Signaling Solutions, Lake Placid, NY) or anti-FcRγ chain Ab. RAW cells (2.5 × 106) were also treated with C. albicans hyphae or yeasts (3 × 106) at 37 °C at different time periods. Tyrosine phosphorylation was examined as described previously. Immunofluorescence Staining—Binding of Dec2V5-RAW cells to hyphae was also studied using microscopy. Hyphae (3 × 105 cells/well) grown in 2-well chamber slides (Lab-Tek Products, Naperville, IL) were labeled with 100 μg/ml TRITC (Sigma) in 0.1 m sodium bicarbonate, pH 8.3, at room temperature for 30 min. Free TRITC was removed completely by extensive washing with PBS. Dec2V5-RAW cells (5 × 106 cells/ml) were pretreated with 1% mouse serum (Jackson ImmunoResearch) in 10% FCS/HBSS on ice for 10 min and surfacelabeled with 2 μg/ml FITC-anti-V5 Ab on ice for 1 h. After washing three times with 10% FCS/HBSS, surface-labeled RAW cells (3 × 105 cells/ml) were resuspended in complete DMEM containing 2.5 μg/ml amphotericin B and then cultured with TRITC-labeled hyphae (3 × 105 RAW cells/well). At different time points after incubating at 37 °C, media were removed, and the cells fixed immediately with 10% formaldehyde/PBS. Finally, immunofluorescence microscopy was performed at the Live Cell Imaging Facility at the University of Texas Southwestern Medical School. Fluorescence images were taken under confocal microscopy and analyzed using 488 nm excitation for FITC and 543 nm for TRITC. To determine subcellular localization of dectin-2 and FcRγ, RAW cells (5 × 105) were incubated with polyclonal rabbit anti-V5 Ab (10 μg/ml) (Chemicon International, Temecula, CA) at 4 °C for 30 min. After washing with PBS, cells were fixed with 4% paraformaldehyde/PBS for 20 min at room temperature, cytospun to a slide glass, and permeabilized with 0.2% Triton X-100/PBS for 2 min. The slide glass was incubated with mouse anti-FcRγ chain Ab (1 μg/ml) at room temperature for 1 h and stained with Alexa488-conjugated goat anti-mouse or 594-conjugated goat anti-rabbit IgG (each 1:1,000 dilution) (Molecular Probes). Fluorescence images were taken under confocal microscopy usin