We investigated the importance of the two catalytic α-isoforms of the 5′-AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) in 5-aminoimidazole-4-carboxamide-1-β-4-ribofuranoside (AICAR) and contraction-induced glucose uptake in skeletal muscle. Incubated soleus and EDL muscle from whole-body α2- or α1-AMPK knockout (KO) and wild type (WT) mice were incubated with 2.0 mm AICAR or electrically stimulated to contraction. Both AICAR and contraction increased 2DG uptake in WT muscles. KO of α2, but not α1, abolished AICAR-induced glucose uptake, whereas neither KO affected contraction-induced glucose uptake. AICAR and contraction increased α2- and α1-AMPK activity in wild type (WT) muscles. During AICAR stimulation, the remaining AMPK activity in KO muscles increased to the same level as in WT. During contraction, the remaining AMPK activity in α2-KO muscles was elevated by 100% probably explained by a 2–3-fold increase in α1-protein. In α1-KO muscles, α2-AMPK activity increased to similar levels as in WT. Both interventions increased total AMPK activity, as expressed by AMPK-P and ACCβ-P, in WT muscles. During AICAR stimulation, this was dramatically reduced in α2-KO but not in α1-KO, whereas during contraction, both measurements were essentially similar to WT in both KO-muscles. The results show that α2-AMPK is the main donor of basal and AICAR-stimulated AMPK activity and is responsible for AICAR-induced glucose uptake. In contrast, during contraction, the two α-isoforms seem to substitute for each other in terms of activity, which may explain the normal glucose uptake despite the lack of either α2- or α1-AMPK. Alternatively, neither α-isoform of AMPK is involved in contraction-induced muscle glucose uptake. We investigated the importance of the two catalytic α-isoforms of the 5′-AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) in 5-aminoimidazole-4-carboxamide-1-β-4-ribofuranoside (AICAR) and contraction-induced glucose uptake in skeletal muscle. Incubated soleus and EDL muscle from whole-body α2- or α1-AMPK knockout (KO) and wild type (WT) mice were incubated with 2.0 mm AICAR or electrically stimulated to contraction. Both AICAR and contraction increased 2DG uptake in WT muscles. KO of α2, but not α1, abolished AICAR-induced glucose uptake, whereas neither KO affected contraction-induced glucose uptake. AICAR and contraction increased α2- and α1-AMPK activity in wild type (WT) muscles. During AICAR stimulation, the remaining AMPK activity in KO muscles increased to the same level as in WT. During contraction, the remaining AMPK activity in α2-KO muscles was elevated by 100% probably explained by a 2–3-fold increase in α1-protein. In α1-KO muscles, α2-AMPK activity increased to similar levels as in WT. Both interventions increased total AMPK activity, as expressed by AMPK-P and ACCβ-P, in WT muscles. During AICAR stimulation, this was dramatically reduced in α2-KO but not in α1-KO, whereas during contraction, both measurements were essentially similar to WT in both KO-muscles. The results show that α2-AMPK is the main donor of basal and AICAR-stimulated AMPK activity and is responsible for AICAR-induced glucose uptake. In contrast, during contraction, the two α-isoforms seem to substitute for each other in terms of activity, which may explain the normal glucose uptake despite the lack of either α2- or α1-AMPK. Alternatively, neither α-isoform of AMPK is involved in contraction-induced muscle glucose uptake. The 5′-AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) 1The abbreviations used are: AMPK, 5′-AMP-activated protein kinase; AMPK-P, phosphorylated AMPK; ACCβ, acetyl-CoA carboxylase β; ACCβ-P, phosphorylated ACCβ; AICAR, 5-aminoimidazole-4-carboxamide-1-β-4-ribofuranoside; EDL, extensor digitorum longus; KO, knockout; WT, wild type; 2DG, 2-deoxy-d-glucose. is a multisubstrate serine/threonine protein kinase that is ubiquitously expressed and functions as an intracellular fuel sensor activated by depletion of high energy phosphor compounds (1.Corton J.M. Gillespie J.G. Hardie D.G. Curr. Biol. 1994; 4: 315-324Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (395) Google Scholar, 2.Hardie D.G. Carling D. Carlson M. Annu. Rev. Biochem. 1998; 67: 821-855Crossref PubMed Scopus (1276) Google Scholar). 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This clearly indicates dissimilarities between AICAR/hypoxia- and contraction-stimulated glucose transport in that AMPK is only partially responsible for contraction to stimulate muscle glucose transport. AMPK is a heterotrimeric enzyme complex consisting of a catalytic α-subunit and regulatory β- and γ-subunits. Two isoforms have been identified of the α-subunit (α1 and α2) and β-subunit (β1 and β2) and three isoforms of the γ-subunit (γ1, γ2, and γ3) (37.Stapleton D. Mitchelhill K.I. Gao G. Widmer J. Michell B.J. Teh T. House C.M. Fernandez C.S. Cox T. Witters L.A. Kemp B.E. J. Biol. Chem. 1996; 271: 611-614Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (564) Google Scholar, 38.Stapleton D. Woollatt E. Mitchelhill K.I. Nicholl J.K. Fernandez C.S. Michell B.J. Witters L.A. Power D.A. Sutherland G.R. Kemp B.E. FEBS Lett. 1997; 409: 452-456Crossref PubMed Scopus (108) Google Scholar, 39.Cheung P.C. Salt I.P. Davies S.P. Hardie D.G. Carling D. Biochem. J. 2000; 346: 659-669Crossref PubMed Scopus (533) Google Scholar). To date, it is not known which of the two catalytic α-isoforms convey the effects on glucose transport in skeletal muscle. It is also not known which of the two isoforms constitute the dominant isoform in skeletal muscle. These questions are important from a physiological point of view but also because design of drugs targeting AMPK may be facilitated if the precise α-AMPK isoform responsible for the desired metabolic effects is known. To investigate this further, AMPK was activated by AICAR or contraction in muscles consisting of predominantly slow or fast twitch fiber types from mice that do not express either the α2- or α1-AMPK isoform. Here we show that AICAR stimulation of muscle glucose uptake requires the presence of the α2-isoform, whereas, in this respect, the α1-isoform is of no relevance. In contrast, neither of the two knockouts markedly decreases contraction-stimulated glucose uptake. A mouse 129-strain genomic library (Stratagene, La Jolla, CA) was screened with a specific mouse AMPK catalytic α1-subunit 500-bp fragment made by reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction on liver messenger RNA using the forward 5′-AGGGCCCGACACACCCTAGA-3′ and the reverse 5′-TGTGACTTCCTGGTCTTGGA-3′ primers. One genomic clone encompassing a 14.5-kb genomic fragment was used to generate the targeting construct. This fragment contains the exons encoding the N terminus catalytic domain of the α1-AMPK subunit corresponding to amino acids 31–239. A 4-kb HincII-BpmI 5′ homologous genomic fragment was blunted, modified by the addition of NotI linkers, and subcloned into the 5′ NotI site of the previously reported IRES-βgeo (40.Vallet V.S. Casado M. Henrion A.A. Bucchini D. Raymondjean M. Kahn A. Vaulont S. J. Biol. Chem. 1998; 273: 20175-20179Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (116) Google Scholar). This plasmid was SalI-digested, and the 3′ α1 homologous fragment, consisting of a 3-kb SacI-SacI fragment, was inserted. The resulting targeting construct was linearized at the unique XhoI site and 40 μg was used to electroporate 1 × 107 embryonic stem cells (ES cells; a kind gift from Anne K. Voss, Gottingen, Germany), which were cultured on mitomycin-treated embryonic fibroblast feeder layers. DNA from clones surviving G418 selection (200 μg/ml) was individually analyzed on Southern blot. DNA was EcoRI-digested and hybridized either with a 5′ external probe consisting of a genomic SalI-HincII fragment or with a 3′ external probe consisting of a SacI-SacI genomic fragment (Fig. 1A). Positive ES cells were injected into blastocysts derived from C57BL/6J mice, and chimeric males were mated to wild type C57BL/6J females for the germ line transmission as previously described (41.Vallet V.S. Henrion A.A. Bucchini D. Casado M. Raymondjean M. Kahn A. Vaulont S. J. Biol. Chem. 1997; 272: 21944-21949Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (96) Google Scholar). Mice heterozygous for the gene targeting event were then used to generate the homozygous α1-AMPK mutant mice. α2-AMPK genomic clones were isolated after screening a mouse 129 strain genomic library (Stratagene, La Jolla, CA). The targeting construct was generated by flanking exon C, which encodes the α2-AMPK catalytic domain with loxP sites for the Cre recombinase and inserting a phosphoglycerol kinase promoter-driven neomycin selection cassette flanked by an additional loxP site. The generation of the α2-AMPK knockout mouse and its phenotype has recently been described elsewhere; for details, see Viollet et al. (42.Viollet B. Andreelli F. Jorgensen S.B. Perrin C. Geloen A. Flamez D. Mu J. Lenzner C. Baud O. Bennoun M. Gomas E. Nicolas G. Wojtaszewski J.F. Kahn A. Carling D. Schuit F.C. Birnbaum M.J. Richter E.A. Burcelin R. Vaulont S. J. Clin. Invest. 2003; 111: 91-98Crossref PubMed Scopus (442) Google Scholar). All experiments were approved by the Danish Animal Experimental Inspectorate and complied with the European Convention for the Protection of Vertebrate Animals used for Experiments and Other Scientific Purposes (Council of Europe 123, Strasbourg, France, 1985). Four-month-old male and female α1-AMPK knockout (KO) and wild type (WT) mice as well as male α2-AMPK KO and WT mice were studied. Within each strain, KO and WT mice used for experiments were littermates produced by intercross-breeding using heterozygote parent animals. The genotype of the offspring was first determined by PCR on DNA extracted from a tail biopsy tested against positive control samples. The lack of α-AMPK protein was later verified by immunoblotting on samples from muscle tissue. The mice were maintained on a 12 h/12 h light-dark cycle and received standard rodent chow (Altromin 1324, Chr. Pedersen A/S, Ringsted, Denmark) and water ad libitum. Tolerance tests were performed on both α2- and α1-AMPK KO and corresponding WT mice. Glucose (2 g/kg), insulin (0.5 units/kg; Actrapid, Novo Nordisk, Bagsværd, Denmark), or AICAR (250 mg/kg; Toronto Research Chemicals Inc., Toronto, CA) was given intraperitoneally at time 0 (isotonic solutions). Tail blood was collected at –20, 20, 40, 60, 105, and 150 min, and blood glucose concentration was determined using a glucometer (Bayer, Leverkusen, Germany). Mice were semifasted before the glucose and AICAR tolerance test (received 40% of daily food intake 18 h prior to test) but were fed before the insulin tolerance tests. Area under the curve (AUC; mm·min) is calculated from the changes in blood glucose concentration at time point 20–150 min compared with basal value at time –20 min. Soleus (mainly slow twitch fibers) and extensor digitorum longus (EDL; mainly fast twitch fibers) were obtained from anesthetized mice (6 mg of pentobarbital 100 g–1 body weight) and suspended by ligatures at resting tension (4–5 millinewtons) in incubation chambers (Multi Myograph system; Danish Myo-Technology, Aarhus, DK) in a Krebs-Henseleit buffer at 30 °C (42.Viollet B. Andreelli F. Jorgensen S.B. Perrin C. Geloen A. Flamez D. Mu J. Lenzner C. Baud O. Bennoun M. Gomas E. Nicolas G. Wojtaszewski J.F. Kahn A. Carling D. Schuit F.C. Birnbaum M.J. Richter E.A. Burcelin R. Vaulont S. J. Clin. Invest. 2003; 111: 91-98Crossref PubMed Scopus (442) Google Scholar). AICAR Stimulation—AICAR (2 mm, 40 min, Toronto Research Chemicals Inc., Toronto, Canada) was added after 10 min of basal incubation. Contraction—After 40 min of basal incubation, contraction was induced by electrical stimulation with a 10-s train (100-Hz, 0.2-ms impulse, ∼30 V) per min for 10 min. After incubation, muscles were harvested, washed in ice-cold Krebs-Henseleit buffer, blotted on filter paper, and quickly frozen with aluminum tongs precooled in liquid nitrogen and stored at –80 °C. In some experiments, 2-deoxy-d-glucose (2DG) uptake was measured by adding 2-[2,6-3H]deoxy-d-glucose (1 mm) and [1-14C]mannitol (8 mm) (Amersham Biosciences) to the medium (specific activities of the two tracers in the medium were 0.128 and 0.083 μCi ml–1, respectively). During AICAR incubation, 2DG uptake was measured during the last 10 min of incubation. During muscle contraction, 2DG uptake was measured during the last 5 min of muscle contraction and the first 5 min into recovery (42.Viollet B. Andreelli F. Jorgensen S.B. Perrin C. Geloen A. Flamez D. Mu J. Lenzner C. Baud O. Bennoun M. Gomas E. Nicolas G. Wojtaszewski J.F. Kahn A. Carling D. Schuit F.C. Birnbaum M.J. Richter E.A. Burcelin R. Vaulont S. J. Clin. Invest. 2003; 111: 91-98Crossref PubMed Scopus (442) Google Scholar). Radioactivity in the supernatant was measured using liquid scintillation counting (Tri-Carb 2000; Packard Instrument Co.). Muscles were homogenized in ice-cold buffer (20 mm Tris base, 50 mm NaCl, 2 mm dithiothreitol, 50 mm NaF, 1% Triton X-100, 250 mm sucrose, 5 mm sodium pyrophosphate, 4 μg/ml leupeptin, 6 mm benzamidine, 500 μm phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride, 50 μg/ml soybean trypsin inhibitor, pH 7.4) for 20 s using a homogenizer (PT 3100; Brinkmann Instruments). Homogenates were rotated end over end for 1 h at 4 °C. Lysates were generated by centrifugation (17,500 × g) for 1 h at 4 °C. Lysates were quick frozen in liquid nitrogen and stored at –80 °C. Protein content in lysates was measured by the bicinchoninic acid method (Pierce). Protein levels of the α1- and α2-AMPK subunits were determined by SDS-PAGE followed by immunoblotting using polyclonal antibodies generated in sheep as described by Woods et al. (43.Woods A. Salt I. Scott J. Hardie D.G. Carling D. FEBS Lett. 1996; 397: 347-351Crossref PubMed Scopus (230) Google Scholar) (antibodies were kindly donated by D. G. Hardie, University of Dundee, UK). ACCβ protein was accessed using horseradish peroxidase-conjugated streptavidin (DakoCytomatione, Glostrup, Denmark) as described by Wojtaszewski et al. (44.Wojtaszewski J.F. Mourtzakis M. Hillig T. Saltin B. Pilegaard H. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 2002; 298: 309-316Crossref PubMed Scopus (104) Google Scholar). GLUT4 protein was assessed in total crude membrane using polyclonal antibody raised against a peptide corresponding to the mouse GLUT4 C terminus sequence (Chemicon International Inc.) as described by Ploug et al. (45.Ploug T. Wojtaszewski J. Kristiansen S. Hespel P. Galbo H. Richter E.A. Am. J. Physiol. 1993; 264: E270-E278PubMed Google Scholar). α-AMPK Thr172 phosphorylation was measured by immunoblotting using a phosphospecific antibody (Cell Signaling Technologies). ACCβ Ser227 phosphorylation was determined by immunoblotting using a phosphospecific antibody (Upstate Biotechnology Inc., Lake Placid, NY). This antibody is raised against a peptide corresponding to the sequence in rat liver ACCα around the Ser79 phosphorylation site, but the antibody also recognizes the mouse ACCβ when phosphorylated most likely on the corresponding Ser227. Muscle lysate protein was loaded on 7.5% Tris-HCl Criterion gels (Bio-Rad) and transferred to polyvinylidene difluoride membrane (Immobilon Transfer Membrane, Millipore A/S, Glostrup, DK) by semi-wet blotting. Membranes were blocked in TBST containing 1 or 2% low fat milk protein for 1 h at room temperature. Membranes were then incubated with primary antibodies overnight at 4 °C, followed by incubation with horseradish peroxidase-conjugated secondary antibody for 2 h at room temperature (rabbit anti-sheep immunoglobulins, horse-radish peroxidase-conjugated; DAKO, Glostrup, Denmark). Bands were visualized using an Eastman Kodak Co. Image Station 440CF and enhanced chemoluminescence (ECL+). Bands were quantified using Kodak 1D 3.5 software, and protein content was expressed in relative units in comparison with control samples loaded on each gel. α-Isoform-specific AMPK activity was measured in vitro in immunoprecipitates from 100 μg of muscle lysate protein using anti-α1 and anti-α2 antibodies. The protocol was identical to the one previously described (7.Wojtaszewski J.F. Nielsen P. Hansen B.F. Richter E.A. Kiens B. J. Physiol. 2000; 528: 221-226Crossref PubMed Scopus (346) Google Scholar) except for the kinase reaction time (45 min). Muscle glycogen content was determined as glycosyl units after acid hydrolysis (46.Lowry O.H. Passonneau J.V. A Flexible System of Enzymatic Analysis. Academic Press, London1972: 1-291Google Scholar). Mice were starved for 5 h (from 5:00 to 10:00 p.m.), samples were obtained from tail blood, and serum insulin was assessed using a rat enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay kit with a mouse insulin standard (Crystal Chem Inc., Chicago, IL). Contraction force was measured by a force transducer connected to one end of the muscle by the ligature. Force generated was registered on a computer and was expressed as the average force generated (above resting tension) during the 10 stimulation periods. The degree of “fatigue” was obtained by comparing the mean contraction force during stimulation trains 8–10 with the first stimulation train and is expressed as the percentage decrease in mean contraction force. Control samples were added to both kinase activity assays and immunoblots, and assay-to-assay variation was accounted for by expressing the data relative to these samples. Data are expressed as means ± S.E. Statistical evaluation was performed by two-way analysis of variance for repeated measurements or Student's two-tailed t test. When analysis of variance revealed significant differences, the Student-Newman-Keuls method was used as a post hoc test to correct for multiple comparisons. Differences between groups were considered statistically significant if p was <0.05. Generation of α-AMPK Knockout Mice—The description of the α2-AMPK KO mice is published elsewhere; for details, see Viollet et al. (42.Viollet B. Andreelli F. Jorgensen S.B. Perrin C. Geloen A. Flamez D. Mu J. Lenzner C. Baud O. Bennoun M. Gomas E. Nicolas G. Wojtaszewski J.F. Kahn A. Carling D. Schuit F.C. Birnbaum M.J. Richter E.A. Burcelin R. Vaulont S. J. Clin. Invest. 2003; 111: 91-98Crossref PubMed Scopus (442) Google Scholar). In order to inactivate the AMPK catalytic α1-subunit gene, a replacement vector was constructed with 7 kb of ES-129-derived genomic fragment and a selection cassette deleting part of the catalytic domain of α1-AMPK from amino acids 97–157 (Fig. 1A). As shown in Fig. 1B, hybridization of EcoRI-digested genomic DNAs with the indicated 5′ external probe led to WT alleles of 5.5 kb and mutated alleles of 5.0 kb. Immunoblot analysis (Fig. 1C) of protein extracts prepared from α1-AMPK knockout liver and skeletal muscle showed undetectable α1-protein and a level of α2-protein comparable with that observed in extracts from WT mice. α1-, α2-, ACCβ-, and GLUT4-protein Levels—Gene targeting for either the α2- or α1-subunit resulted in complete lack of expression of these subunits at the protein level (Table I and Fig. 2). In the α2 knockout muscles, a compensatory 200–300% increase in the protein level of the remaining α1-isoform was observed in EDL and soleus. In the α1-KO soleus muscles, a ∼60% increase in the remaining α2-isoform was observed, whereas no change was seen in EDL. The protein level of ACCβ was also measured in the two muscles and was expressed to the same level in both of the two knockout strains (Table I and Fig. 2). The GLUT4 protein content was measured in the gastrocnemius muscle and was expressed to the same level in both of the two knockout strains (Table II and Fig. 2).Table Iα1-, α2- and ACCβ-protein levels in EDL and soleus muscles from α1- or α2-AMPK knockout miceMuscleGenotypeProtein contentα2α1ACCβEDLα2-WT1.4 ± 0.20.9 ± 0.10.6 ± 0.1α2-KOND1.9 ± 0.3*0.6 ± 0.1Soleusα2-WT0.7 ± 0.11.2 ± 0.21.4 ± 0.2α2-KOND3.3 ± 0.5*1.2 ± 0.2EDLα1-WT2.3 ± 0.21.1 ± 0.21.1 ± 0.1α1-KO2.3 ± 0.3ND1.0 ± 0.1Soleusα1-WT0.7 ± 0.11.2 ± 0.11.5 ± 0.1α1-KO1.1 ± 0.1*ND1.5 ± 0.1 Open table in a new tab Table IIGLUT4 protein level in gastrocnemius muscle from α1- or α2-AMPK knockout miceMuscleProtein contentGenotypeGLUT4Gast.α2-WT1.8 ± 0.2α2-KO2.1 ± 0.3Gast.α1-WT1.8 ± 0.4α1-KO1.9 ± 0.2 Open table in a new tab Phenotype of Knockout Mice—A detailed description of the α2-AMPK KO mouse phenotype has been published recently (42.Viollet B. Andreelli F. Jorgensen S.B. Perrin C. Geloen A. Flamez D. Mu J. Lenzner C. Baud O. Bennoun M. Gomas E. Nicolas G. Wojtaszewski J.F. Kahn A. Carling D. Schuit