Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) has been implicated in the pathological induction of new blood vessel growth in a variety of proliferative disorders. Using the SELEX process (systematic evolution of ligands byexponential enrichment), we have isolated 2′-F-pyrimidine RNA oligonucleotide ligands (aptamers) to human VEGF165. Representative aptamers from three distinct sequence families were truncated to the minimal sequence capable of high affinity binding to VEGF (23–29 nucleotides) and were further modified by replacement of 2′-O-methyl for 2′-OH at all ribopurine positions where the substitution was tolerated. Equilibrium dissociation constants for the interaction of VEGF with the truncated, 2′-O-methyl-modified aptamers range between 49 and 130 pm. These aptamers bind equally well to murine VEGF164, do not bind to VEGF121 or the smaller isoform of placenta growth factor (PlGF129), and show reduced, but significant affinity for the VEGF165/PlGF129 heterodimer. Cysteine 137 in the exon 7-encoded domain of VEGF165 forms a photo-inducible cross-link to a single uridine residue in each of the three aptamers. The aptamers potently inhibit the binding of VEGF to the human VEGF receptors, KDR and Flt-1, expressed by transfected porcine aortic endothelial cells. Furthermore, one of the aptamers is able to significantly reduce intradermal VEGF-induced vascular permeability in vivo. Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) has been implicated in the pathological induction of new blood vessel growth in a variety of proliferative disorders. Using the SELEX process (systematic evolution of ligands byexponential enrichment), we have isolated 2′-F-pyrimidine RNA oligonucleotide ligands (aptamers) to human VEGF165. Representative aptamers from three distinct sequence families were truncated to the minimal sequence capable of high affinity binding to VEGF (23–29 nucleotides) and were further modified by replacement of 2′-O-methyl for 2′-OH at all ribopurine positions where the substitution was tolerated. Equilibrium dissociation constants for the interaction of VEGF with the truncated, 2′-O-methyl-modified aptamers range between 49 and 130 pm. These aptamers bind equally well to murine VEGF164, do not bind to VEGF121 or the smaller isoform of placenta growth factor (PlGF129), and show reduced, but significant affinity for the VEGF165/PlGF129 heterodimer. Cysteine 137 in the exon 7-encoded domain of VEGF165 forms a photo-inducible cross-link to a single uridine residue in each of the three aptamers. The aptamers potently inhibit the binding of VEGF to the human VEGF receptors, KDR and Flt-1, expressed by transfected porcine aortic endothelial cells. Furthermore, one of the aptamers is able to significantly reduce intradermal VEGF-induced vascular permeability in vivo. The growth of new blood vessels, or angiogenesis, is an essential physiological response to increased demand for nutrients and the accumulation of metabolic end products. In normal physiological processes such as wound healing and the formation of corpus luteum and endometrium, angiogenesis is tightly regulated by positive and negative signals. In several disease states, however, overactive angiogenesis contributes to advancement of disease (1Folkman J. Nat. Med. 1995; 1: 27-31Crossref PubMed Scopus (7290) Google Scholar, 2Risau W. Nature. 1997; 386: 671-674Crossref PubMed Scopus (4930) Google Scholar). Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), 1The abbreviations used are: VEGFvascular endothelial growth factorPBSphosphate-buffered salinePEGpolyethylene glycolPAEporcine aortic endothelialPlGFplacenta growth factor5-I-U5-iodo-uridineHBSHepes-buffered salineTBSTris-buffered saline. also known as vascular permeability factor, has recently emerged as a central positive regulator of angiogenesis. VEGF displays activity as an endothelial cell mitogen and chemoattractant in vitro (3Gospodarowicz D. Abraham J.A. Schilling J. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 1989; 86: 7311-7315Crossref PubMed Scopus (592) Google Scholar, 4Leung D.W. Cachianes G. Kuang W.-J. Goeddel D.V. Ferrara N. Science. 1989; 246: 1306-1309Crossref PubMed Scopus (4581) Google Scholar, 5Conn G. Soderman D.D. Schaeffer M.-T. Wile M. Hatcher V.B. Thomas K.A. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 1990; 87: 1323-1327Crossref PubMed Scopus (215) Google Scholar) and induces vascular permeability and angiogenesis in vivo (4Leung D.W. Cachianes G. Kuang W.-J. Goeddel D.V. Ferrara N. Science. 1989; 246: 1306-1309Crossref PubMed Scopus (4581) Google Scholar, 6Senger D.R. Galli S.J. Dvorak A.M. Perruzzi C.A. Harvey V.S. Dvorak H.F. Science. 1983; 219: 983-985Crossref PubMed Scopus (3495) Google Scholar, 7Senger D.R. Perruzzi C.A. Feder J. Dvorak H.F. Cancer Res. 1986; 46: 5629-5632PubMed Google Scholar, 8Keck P.J. Hauser S.D. Krivi G. Sanzo K. Warren T. Feder J. Connolly D.T. Science. 1989; 246: 1309-1312Crossref PubMed Scopus (1893) Google Scholar). VEGF and its two tyrosine kinase receptors, Flt-1 and Flk-1/KDR, are essential during embryonic development for the differentiation of endothelial cell precursors and the formation of a vascular network (9Carmeliet P. Ferreira V. Breier G. Pollefeyt S. Kieckens L. Gertsenstein M. Fahrig M. Vandenhoeck A. Harpal K. Eberhardt C. Declercq C. Pawling J. Moons L. Collen D. Risau W. Nagy A. Nature. 1996; 380: 435-439Crossref PubMed Scopus (3513) Google Scholar, 10Ferrara N. Carver-Moore K. Chen H. Dowd M. Lu L. O'Shea K.S. Powell-Braxton L. Hillan K.J. Moore M.W. Nature. 1996; 380: 439-442Crossref PubMed Scopus (3086) Google Scholar, 11Fong G.-H. Rossant J. Gertsenstein M. Breitman M.L. Nature. 1995; 376: 66-70Crossref PubMed Scopus (2237) Google Scholar, 12Shalaby F. Rossant J. Yamaguchi T.P. Gertsenstein M. Wu X.-F. Breitman M.L. Schuh A.C. Nature. 1995; 376: 62-66Crossref PubMed Scopus (3401) Google Scholar). VEGF is secreted as a disulfide-linked homodimer that occurs in four isoforms (121, 165, 189, and 206 amino acids) that derive from alternatively spliced forms of a common mRNA (4Leung D.W. Cachianes G. Kuang W.-J. Goeddel D.V. Ferrara N. Science. 1989; 246: 1306-1309Crossref PubMed Scopus (4581) Google Scholar, 13Ferrara N. Houck K. Jakeman L. Winer J. Leung D.W. J. Cell. Biochem. 1991; 47: 211-218Crossref PubMed Scopus (559) Google Scholar). The two larger isoforms are cell matrix-associated as a consequence of their high affinity for heparin, while the smaller isoforms are more readily diffusible (13Ferrara N. Houck K. Jakeman L. Winer J. Leung D.W. J. Cell. Biochem. 1991; 47: 211-218Crossref PubMed Scopus (559) Google Scholar). VEGF165 also binds heparin, while VEGF121 does not (13Ferrara N. Houck K. Jakeman L. Winer J. Leung D.W. J. Cell. Biochem. 1991; 47: 211-218Crossref PubMed Scopus (559) Google Scholar). The role of different isoforms of VEGF in various biological contexts remains to be fully elucidated. vascular endothelial growth factor phosphate-buffered saline polyethylene glycol porcine aortic endothelial placenta growth factor 5-iodo-uridine Hepes-buffered saline Tris-buffered saline. There is now substantial evidence that VEGF induces angiogenesis in several pathological settings. VEGF is secreted by a wide variety of cancer cell types and promotes the growth of tumors by inducing the development of tumor-associated vasculature (6Senger D.R. Galli S.J. Dvorak A.M. Perruzzi C.A. Harvey V.S. Dvorak H.F. Science. 1983; 219: 983-985Crossref PubMed Scopus (3495) Google Scholar, 7Senger D.R. Perruzzi C.A. Feder J. Dvorak H.F. Cancer Res. 1986; 46: 5629-5632PubMed Google Scholar, 14Takahashi A. Sasaki H. Kim S.J. Tobisu K. Kakizoe T. Tsukamoto T. Kumamoto Y. Sugimura T. Terada M. Cancer Res. 1994; 54: 4233-4237PubMed Google Scholar, 15Yoshiji H. Gomez D.E. Shibuya M. Thorgeirsson U.P. Cancer Res. 1996; 56: 2013-2016PubMed Google Scholar, 16Brown L.F. Detmar M. Claffey K. Nagy J.A. Feng D. Dvorak A.M. Dvorak H.F. Goldberg I.D. Rosen E.M. Regulation of Angiogenesis. Birkhäuser Verlag, Basel1997: 233-269Google Scholar, 17Plate K.H. Breier G. Weich H.A. Mennel H.D. Risau W. Int. J. Cancer. 1994; 59: 520-529Crossref PubMed Scopus (428) Google Scholar, 18Ferrara N. Davis-Smyth T. Endocr. Rev. 1997; 18: 4-25Crossref PubMed Scopus (3668) Google Scholar). Inhibition of VEGF function has been shown to limit both the growth of primary experimental tumors as well as the incidence of metastases in immunocompromised mice (19Kim K.J. Li B. Winer J. Armanini M. Gillett N. Phillips H.S. Ferrara N. Nature. 1993; 362: 841-844Crossref PubMed Scopus (3403) Google Scholar, 20Millauer B. Shawver L.K. Plate K.H. Risau W. Ullrich A. Nature. 1994; 367: 576-579Crossref PubMed Scopus (1182) Google Scholar, 21Warren R.S. Yuan H. Matli M.R. Gillett N.A. Ferrara N. J. Clin. Invest. 1995; 95: 1789-1797Crossref PubMed Scopus (634) Google Scholar, 22Melnyk O. Shuman M.A. Kim K.J. Cancer Res. 1996; 56: 921-924PubMed Google Scholar). Elevated VEGF expression is correlated with several forms of ocular neovascularization that often lead to severe vision loss, including diabetic retinopathy (23Adamis A.P. Miller J.W. Bernal M.-T. D'Amico D.J. Folkman J. Yeo T.-K. Yeo K.-T. Am. J. Ophthalmol. 1994; 118: 445-450Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (1230) Google Scholar), retinopathy of prematurity (24Pierce E.A. Avery R.L. Foley E.D. Aiello L.P. Smith L.E.H. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 1995; 92: 905-909Crossref PubMed Scopus (968) Google Scholar), and macular degeneration (25Kvanta A. Algvere P.V. Berglin L. Seregard S. Invst. Ophthalmol. & Visual Sci. 1996; 37: 1929-1934PubMed Google Scholar). VEGF may also play a role in inflammatory disorders such as rheumatoid arthritis (26Koch A.E. Harlow L.A. Haines G.K. Amento E.P. Unemori E.N. Wong W.L. Pope R.M. Ferrara N. J. Immunol. 1994; 152: 4149-4156PubMed Google Scholar) and psoriasis (27Detmar M. Brown L.F. Claffey K.P. Yeo K.T. Kocher O. Jackman R.W. Berse B. Dvorak H.F. J. Exp. Med. 1994; 180: 1141-1146Crossref PubMed Scopus (662) Google Scholar). Thus, agents that specifically inhibit VEGF may have great utility in combatting a variety of human diseases for which few effective treatments are presently available. Nucleic acids, as a function of their primary structure, can fold into complex three-dimensional shapes with a great diversity of binding specificities. Using the SELEX (systematicevolution of ligands by exponential enrichment) process, oligonucleotides may be efficiently isolated from enormous randomized libraries of RNA, DNA, or modified nucleic acids that bind with high affinity and high specificity to various molecular targets (28Tuerk C. Gold L. Science. 1990; 249: 505-510Crossref PubMed Scopus (8418) Google Scholar, 29Ellington A. Szostak J. Nature. 1990; 346: 818-822Crossref PubMed Scopus (8033) Google Scholar). The method has been used to isolate ligands for proteins, peptides, carbohydrates, and small organic molecules (reviewed in Ref. 30Gold L. Polisky B. Uhlenbeck O. Yarus M. Annu. Rev. Biochem. 1995; 64: 763-797Crossref PubMed Scopus (753) Google Scholar). Such oligonucleotide ligands, termed “aptamers” (29Ellington A. Szostak J. Nature. 1990; 346: 818-822Crossref PubMed Scopus (8033) Google Scholar), can be highly potent antagonists of enzyme catalysis or of specific protein-protein interactions (30Gold L. Polisky B. Uhlenbeck O. Yarus M. Annu. Rev. Biochem. 1995; 64: 763-797Crossref PubMed Scopus (753) Google Scholar). The potential utility of aptamers as therapeutic or diagnostic agents is considerably enhanced by chemical modifications that lend resistance to nuclease attack. In particular, substitution at the 2′-position of ribonucleotides with 2′-amino (2′-NH2), 2′-fluoro (2′-F), or a variety of 2′-O-alkyl moieties confers resistance to ribonucleases that utilize the 2′-OH group for cleavage of the adjacent phosphodiester bond (31Pieken W.A. Olsen D.B. Benseler F. Aurup H. Eckstein F. Science. 1991; 253: 314-317Crossref PubMed Scopus (449) Google Scholar, 32Cummins L.L. Owens S.R. Risen L.M. Lesnik E.A. Freler S.M. McGee D. Guinosso C.J. Cook P.D. Nucleic Acids Res. 1995; 23: 2019-2024Crossref PubMed Scopus (318) Google Scholar). We have previously described the use of the SELEX process to identify RNA (33Jellinek D. Green L.S. Bell C. Janjić N. Biochemistry. 1994; 33: 10450-10456Crossref PubMed Scopus (168) Google Scholar) and 2′-NH2-pyrimidine RNA aptamers to VEGF165 (34Green L.S. Jellinek D. Bell C. Beebe L.A. Feistner B.D. Gill S.C. Jucker F.M. Janjić N. Chem. Biol. 1995; 2: 683-695Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (250) Google Scholar). The incentive for performing SELEX experiments with 2′-F-pyrimidine RNA libraries, described in this report, was essentially 2-fold: first, we hoped to obtain nuclease-resistant aptamers that bind to VEGF with higher affinities than the 2′-NH2-pyrimidine-based aptamers. 2′-NH2 modifications have been observed to decrease the stability of model DNA/DNA, RNA/RNA, and RNA/DNA duplexes (35Aurup H. Tuschl T. Benseler F. Ludwig J. Eckstein F. Nucleic Acids Res. 1994; 22: 20-24Crossref PubMed Scopus (119) Google Scholar, 36Miller D.S. Bhan P. Kan L.-S. Nucleosides Nucleotides. 1993; 12: 785-792Crossref Scopus (29) Google Scholar), while substitution of 2′-F in model duplexes dramatically increases their thermal stability (32Cummins L.L. Owens S.R. Risen L.M. Lesnik E.A. Freler S.M. McGee D. Guinosso C.J. Cook P.D. Nucleic Acids Res. 1995; 23: 2019-2024Crossref PubMed Scopus (318) Google Scholar, 37Lesnik E.A. Guinosso C.J. Kawasaki A.M. Sasmor H. Zounes M. Cummins L.L. Ecker D.J. Cook P.D. Freier S.M. Biochemistry. 1993; 32: 7832-7838Crossref PubMed Scopus (214) Google Scholar, 38Kawasaki A.M. Casper M.D. Freier S.M. Lesnik E.A. Zounes M.C. Cummins L.L. Gonzalez C. Cook P.D. J. Med. Chem. 1993; 36: 831-841Crossref PubMed Scopus (382) Google Scholar). If 2′-NH2 groups increase the conformational flexibility of oligonucleotides in general, the entropic cost of binding may limit the affinity of aptamers derived from 2′-NH2-pyrimidine RNA libraries (39Eaton B.E. Gold L. Zichi D.A. Chem. & Biol. 1995; 2: 633-638Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (180) Google Scholar). In contrast, 2′-F-pyrimidine aptamers may adopt more rigid conformations and, thus, may exhibit higher binding affinities for their targets. Second, apart from possible advantages related to binding affinity, the chemical synthesis of aptamers derived from 2′-F-pyrimidine libraries is considerably more economical. The coupling efficiency of 2′-F-pyrimidine phosphoramidites during oligonucleotide synthesis is greater than that of 2′-NH2-pyrimidine phosphoramidites and the 2′-F groups do not require protection/deprotection steps. Here we report that VEGF aptamers isolated from 2′-F-pyrimidine RNA libraries generally display higher affinities for VEGF than do the 2′-NH2-pyrimidine RNA aptamers isolated previously (34Green L.S. Jellinek D. Bell C. Beebe L.A. Feistner B.D. Gill S.C. Jucker F.M. Janjić N. Chem. Biol. 1995; 2: 683-695Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (250) Google Scholar). For three representative aptamers, the minimal sequence required for high affinity binding to VEGF is encoded in 23–29 nucleotides and all but two of the 2′-OH-purine positions can be substituted with 2′-O-methyl- (2′-OMe-) purines with only modest decreases in binding affinity. The minimal, substituted aptamers bind specifically to VEGF165 with affinities between 49 and 130 pm and show no detectable binding affinity for VEGF121 or the shorter isoform of placenta growth factor (PlGF129), a protein with 53% homology to VEGF (40Maglione D. Guerriero V. Viglietto G. Delli-Bovi P. Persico M.G. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 1991; 88: 9267-9271Crossref PubMed Scopus (870) Google Scholar). The aptamers bind to the heterodimers of VEGF165 and PlGF123, but with reduced affinities. A site of photo-cross-linking between each of the aptamers and VEGF165 was mapped to Cys137 in the carboxyl-terminal exon-7-encoded domain. In vitro, the 2′-F-pyrimidine-, 2′-OMe-purine-substituted VEGF aptamers inhibit the binding of VEGF165 to both the human Flt-1 and KDR VEGF receptors expressed on porcine aortic endothelial cells. Furthermore, one of the aptamers blocks VEGF induction of vascular permeability as measured in the Miles assay (7Senger D.R. Perruzzi C.A. Feder J. Dvorak H.F. Cancer Res. 1986; 46: 5629-5632PubMed Google Scholar), and thus shows potential utility as an inhibitor of VEGF-mediated effects in vivo. Recombinant human VEGF165 purified from the insect cell line Sf21 was purchased from R & D Systems (Minneapolis, MN) as a carrier-free lyophilized powder. The protein was resuspended in phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) to a concentration of 10 μm and stored at −20 °C in small aliquots until use. Aliquots were stored at 4 °C for up to 4 weeks after thawing. Sf21-expressed mouse VEGF164, and Escherichia coli-expressed human VEGF121, VEGF165/PlGF129 heterodimer, and PlGF129 were also purchased from R & D Systems as carrier-free, lyophilized preparations. Oligonucleotides were purchased from Operon Technologies, Inc. (Alameda, CA), or were synthesized in our laboratories using an Applied Biosystems Model 394 oligonucleotide synthesizer according to optimized protocols. The covalent coupling of polyethylene glycol (PEG) to aptamers was accomplished by synthesis of an oligonucleotide bearing a primary amine at the 5′-end using a trifluoroacetyl-protected pentylamine phosphoramidite, followed by reaction with 40-kDa PEGN-hydroxysuccinimide ester (Shearwater Polymers, Huntsville, AL). 2′-F- and 2′-OMe-ribonucleotide phosphoramidites were prepared by JBL Scientific, Inc. (San Luis Obispo, CA) for NeXstar Pharmaceuticals. 2′-F-pyrimidine nucleotriphosphates were also purchased from JBL. 2′-OH-purine nucleotriphosphates and deoxynucleotriphosphates were from Pharmacia Biotech (Piscataway, NJ). [α-32P]ATP and [γ-32P]ATP were obtained from NEN Life Science Products (Boston, MA). DNA oligonucleotide template libraries (5′-TAATACGACTCACTATAGGGAGGACGATGCGG(N30 or 40)CAGACGACTCGCCCGA-3′, where N = any nucleotide) were prepared by chemical synthesis (“30N7” and “40N7”). Italicized nucleotides at the 5′-end of each template correspond to the T7 RNA polymerase promoter sequence. Oligonucleotide primers (5′-TCGGGCGAGTCGTCTG-3′ (“3N7”) and 5′-TAATACGACTCACTATAGGGAGGACGATGCGG-3′ (“5N7”)) were also synthesized for use in template amplification and reverse transcription. Double-stranded DNA templates were prepared by annealing primer 3N7 to the 30N7 or 40N7 libraries and extending the primer using Klenow DNA polymerase (New England Biolabs, Beverly, MA) at 37 °C or avian myeloblastosis virus reverse transcriptase (Life Sciences, Inc., St. Petersburg, FL) at 45 °C. We reasoned that the higher temperature of incubation used for the avian myeloblastosis virus reverse transcriptase reaction would facilitate complete extension through highly structured template oligonucleotides. 1 nmol of each library was transcribed using T7 RNA polymerase (Enzyco, Inc., Denver, CO) in the presence of 1 mm each of 2′-OH-(ATP and GTP), 3 mm each of 2′-F-(CTP and UTP), and 50 μCi of [α-32P]ATP. RNAs were purified from denaturing (7m urea) polyacrylamide gels by excising and crushing the gel slice containing the RNA and soaking it for several hours or overnight in 2 mm EDTA. Approximately 5 nmol of RNA were obtained from each transcription. The SELEX process of affinity selection followed by amplification of the selected pool has been described in detail (41Fitzwater T. Polisky B. Methods Enzymol. 1996; 267: 275-301Crossref PubMed Scopus (153) Google Scholar). In brief, one round of selection and amplification was performed as follows: VEGF was mixed with a 5- or 10-fold excess of 32P-radiolabeled RNA in PBS with 1 mm MgCl2 (PBSM) (30N7 and 40N7 libraries) or in Tris-buffered saline, 1 mmMgCl2, 1 mm CaCl2 (TBSMC) (30N7 library only). After incubation at 37 °C for 15 min, the mixtures were passed through 0.45-μm Type HA nitrocellulose filters (Millipore, Bedford, MA) to collect complexes of VEGF with RNA. The fraction of input RNA bound was monitored by measuring the radioactivity bound to the filter. RNAs were eluted from the filters by incubation in a 2:1 mixture of phenol (pH 7), 7 m urea. After precipitation from the aqueous phase, RNAs were annealed to primer 3N7 and reverse transcribed using avian myeloblastosis virus reverse transcriptase. The resultant cDNAs were amplified with 15 cycles of the polymerase chain reaction using the 3N7 and 5N7 primers and Taq DNA polymerase (Perkin-Elmer). Transcription of the polymerase chain reaction product yielded a new library enriched for sequences with affinity for VEGF. At round 4, the binding of the RNA libraries to nitrocellulose filters without added VEGF substantially increased in all three selected RNA pools. To deplete the pools of filter-binding RNAs, rounds 5 and 6 were performed with an alternative scheme for partitioning VEGF-bound RNAs from unbound molecules: after incubation of the 32P-radiolabeled RNA pool with VEGF, each mixture was applied to an 8% polyacrylamide nondenaturing gel and run at 10 W for 45–60 min at 4 °C. VEGF-RNA complexes migrated above the unbound RNA in this system and were visualized by autoradiography. For these rounds, selected RNAs were purified by the crush and soak method, as described above. The concentrations of RNA and protein were decreased in concert (from approximately 10−7m in the first selection to approximately 10−12m in the last round) as the affinity of the enriched pool for VEGF improved. After 12 rounds of selection and amplification, individual molecules in the selected pools were cloned using the pCR-Script Direct Cloning kit from Stratagene (La Jolla, CA). Plasmids were purified using the alkaline lysis method (PERFECTprep Plasmid DNA kit, 5 Prime → 3 Prime, Inc., Boulder, CO) and sequences of the cloned regions were obtained using the Dye Terminator Cycle Sequencing kit available from Perkin-Elmer. Fluorescent sequencing ladders were read in the laboratory of Dr. Brian Kotzin, National Jewish Hospital, Denver, CO. Sequences were grouped into families and aligned by eye and with the aid of software designed at NeXstar Pharmaceuticals. 2B. Zichi, unpublished data. Aptamers radiolabeled during transcription by incorporation of α-32P-labeled nucleotriphosphates, or after synthesis using [γ-32P]ATP and T4 polynucleotide kinase (New England Biolabs), were incubated in low concentration (typically less than 70 pm) with varying concentrations of VEGF or other proteins at 37 °C for 15–20 min. Incubations were in TBS, PBS, or HEPES-buffered saline (HBS), pH 7.4, with or without divalent cations. Samples were passed through prewashed 0.45-μm nitrocellulose filters followed by a 5–10-ml wash with binding buffer. Filters were immersed in scintillant and the radioactivity counted to quantitate the fraction of RNA bound at each protein concentration. The binding of individual aptamers was often biphasic in nature, consistent with a model in which two species that do not interconvert on the time scale of the experiment bind to a single site on VEGF with different affinities. Equations that describe the fraction of RNA bound as a function ofKd and the total concentrations of RNA and protein (both measurable quantities) have been described for both monophasic and biphasic binding behavior (42Green L.S. Jellinek D. Jenison R. Östman A. Heldin C.-H. Janjić N. Biochemistry. 1996; 35: 14413-14424Crossref PubMed Scopus (379) Google Scholar). Because the concentrations of RNA used in these experiments were near the Kd values of the aptamers and were too low to determine accurately, the least squares fitting of the data points to the binding equations was performed with the RNA concentration set to a negligibly low value. In making this assumption, we ensured that the binding affinities reported here are, at worst, underestimates of the actual values. Ten pmol of internally radiolabeled transcripts of high affinity VEGF aptamers were partially digested with S7 nuclease (Boehringer Mannheim) to generate a mixture of radiolabeled fragments. One-tenth of the fragmented RNA was incubated with 10 pm VEGF in 45 ml of binding buffer, prior to filtration through nitrocellulose. Selected fragments recovered from the filter were run out on a high resolution denaturing polyacrylamide gel next to a lane loaded with the unselected fragment pool. The smallest selected bands were individually purified from the gel and further labeled at their 5′-ends with T4 polynucleotide kinase to increase their specific activity. One-half of the sample was annealed to a cDNA of the original transcript and extended to the end of the template using Sequenase DNA polymerase (U. S. Biochemical Corp., Cleveland, OH). Comparison of the migration of the purified fragment and its extension product to a standard sequencing ladder was used to determine the probable size and position of the selected fragment within the original transcript. Synthetic oligonucleotides corresponding in sequence to the affinity selected fragments were prepared to verify that the truncated aptamer retained affinity for VEGF. 2′-F-pyrimidine oligonucleotides corresponding to truncated VEGF aptamer sequences were chemically synthesized using a 1:2 mixture of 2′-OMe-purine:2′-OH-purine phosphoramidites at five or six purine positions. Because 2′-OMe-nucleoside phosphoramidites couple with higher efficiency, the actual ratio of 2′-OMe-purine to 2′-OH-purine incorporated at each substituted position was roughly 3:1. The sequences of the oligonucleotides are shown below, with the substituted purine positions underlined. U and C represent 2′-F-uridine and 2′-F-cytidine, unless otherwise indicated. All oligonucleotides were synthesized using commercial sources of controlled pore glass beads, and thus, bear an additional 2′-OH-nucleotide at their 3′-ends. The sequences are as follows: t22.29-OMe1,GACGAUGCGGUAGGAAGAAUUGGAAGCGC(U-2′OH); t22.29-OMe2, GACGAUGCGGUAGGAAGAAUUGGAAGCGC(U-2′-OH); t22.29-OMe3, GACGAUGCGGUAGGAAGAAUUGGAAGCGC(U-2′OH); t22.29-OMe4, GACGAUGCGGUAGGAAGAAUUGGAAGCGC(U-2′OH); t2.31-OMe1,GGCGAACCGAUGGAAUUUUUGGACGCUCGCC(U-2′OH); t2.31-OMe2, GGCGAACCGAUGGAAUUUUUGGACGCUCGCC(U-2′OH); t2.31-OMe3, GGCGAACCGAUGGAAUUUUUGGACGCUCGCC(U-2′OH); t44.29-OMe1, GCGGAAUCAGUGAAUGCUUAUACAUCCGC(U-2′OH); t44.29-OMe2, GCGGAAUCAGUGAAUGCUUAUACAUCCGC(U-2′OH); t44.29-OMe3,GCGGAAUCAGUGAAUGCUUAUACAUCCGC(U-2′OH). Each oligonucleotide was radiolabeled at the 5′-end and incubated with VEGF at 320, 60, and 20 pm concentration. The mixtures were filtered through nitrocellulose and bound RNAs were collected by incubation of the filter in 2:1 phenol, pH 7, 7 m urea. Selected RNAs were collected from the aqueous phase by ethanol precipitation. The selected RNAs, along with aliquots of each unselected, radiolabeled oligonucleotide, were subjected to partial alkaline hydrolysis by incubation at 90 °C in 50 mmsodium carbonate buffer, pH 9, for 11 min. Hydrolyzed samples were applied to a 20% polyacrylamide, 7 m urea gel. Radioactive bands were visualized using a Fuji Fujix BAS 1000 PhosphorImager and the intensity of bands corresponding to hydrolysis at individual purine positions was quantitated using MacBAS software, version 2.0. Band intensities were normalized to the total intensity in the lane to correct for variability in sample loading. Band intensity ratios were determined for each purine position by dividing the normalized band intensity in the affinity selected sample by the normalized band intensity at the same position in the unselected sample. Values for the two or three oligonucleotides where a particular purine was not substituted were averaged to obtain a baseline band intensity ratio. Band intensity ratios for substituted positions that fell well below or above the baseline value provided a qualitative indication of positions that show bias for or against 2′-OMe substitution. Approximately 10 μg of aptamer were diluted in 2.5 ml of degassed buffer. Absorbance at 260 nm was monitored in a Varian Cary spectrophotometer relative to a buffer reference as the temperature of the sample was raised from 10 or 20 °C to 90 or 95 °C at a rate of 1°/min. Tmvalues were determined by fitting the data to a mathematical model (43Petersheim M. Turner D.H. Biochemistry. 1983; 22: 256-263Crossref PubMed Scopus (533) Google Scholar) in which each aptamer is assumed to occupy one of two states (folded or unfolded). The baseline absorbance of the folded and unfolded states is assumed to be linear with changes in temperature. Six parameters describe the mathematical model, including the slope and intercept of the upper and lower linear baselines and values for the ΔHand ΔS of the folded to unfolded transition. The temperature at which ΔG = 0 (Tm) was calculated from the fitted values for ΔH and ΔS. Tm values for aptamers t22.23, t22-OMe, t2.29, and t2-OMe were determined in PBS. For t44.27 and t44-OMe, HBS with 1 mm EGTA was used for an initial determination; after cooling, CaCl2 or MgCl2was added to 2 mm final concentration and theTm was measured again. A small amount (typically less than 1 pmol) of 5′-radiolabeled aptamers were incubated with 1 nm VEGF at 37 °C in 1 ml of buffered saline supplemented with divalent cations. At time 0, 50 μl were filtered through nitrocellulose to determine the fraction of RNA bound to protein, then an excess (100 or 500 nm final concentration) of unlabeled aptamer was added in a volume of 2–4 μl and 50-μl aliquots were filtered at time points thereafter. Filters were counted in scintillant to determine the amount of radiolabeled RNA still bound to VEGF at each time point. The data, plotted as fraction of RNA bound (f)versus time, were fit to a first order rate equation,f (t) = f0 e −(kd)t + b, where f0 is the fraction of RNA bound at time 0, kd is the dissociation rate con