Article23 March 2012free access HIF1α induced switch from bivalent to exclusively glycolytic metabolism during ESC-to-EpiSC/hESC transition Wenyu Zhou Wenyu Zhou H Ruohola-Baker Department of Biology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA Institute for Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine (ISCRM), Seattle, WA, USA Search for more papers by this author Michael Choi Michael Choi Institute for Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine (ISCRM), Seattle, WA, USA Department of Biochemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA Search for more papers by this author Daciana Margineantu Daciana Margineantu Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, WA, USA Search for more papers by this author Lilyana Margaretha Lilyana Margaretha Institute for Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine (ISCRM), Seattle, WA, USA Molecular and Cellular Biology Program, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA Search for more papers by this author Jennifer Hesson Jennifer Hesson Institute for Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine (ISCRM), Seattle, WA, USA Department of Comparative Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA Search for more papers by this author Christopher Cavanaugh Christopher Cavanaugh Institute for Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine (ISCRM), Seattle, WA, USA Department of Comparative Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA Search for more papers by this author C Anthony Blau C Anthony Blau Institute for Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine (ISCRM), Seattle, WA, USA Division of Hematology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA Search for more papers by this author Marshall S Horwitz Marshall S Horwitz Institute for Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine (ISCRM), Seattle, WA, USA Department of Pathology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA Search for more papers by this author David Hockenbery Corresponding Author David Hockenbery Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, WA, USA Search for more papers by this author Carol Ware Corresponding Author Carol Ware Institute for Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine (ISCRM), Seattle, WA, USA Department of Comparative Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA Search for more papers by this author Hannele Ruohola-Baker Corresponding Author Hannele Ruohola-Baker H Ruohola-Baker Department of Biology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA Institute for Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine (ISCRM), Seattle, WA, USA Department of Biochemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA Search for more papers by this author Wenyu Zhou Wenyu Zhou H Ruohola-Baker Department of Biology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA Institute for Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine (ISCRM), Seattle, WA, USA Search for more papers by this author Michael Choi Michael Choi Institute for Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine (ISCRM), Seattle, WA, USA Department of Biochemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA Search for more papers by this author Daciana Margineantu Daciana Margineantu Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, WA, USA Search for more papers by this author Lilyana Margaretha Lilyana Margaretha Institute for Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine (ISCRM), Seattle, WA, USA Molecular and Cellular Biology Program, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA Search for more papers by this author Jennifer Hesson Jennifer Hesson Institute for Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine (ISCRM), Seattle, WA, USA Department of Comparative Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA Search for more papers by this author Christopher Cavanaugh Christopher Cavanaugh Institute for Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine (ISCRM), Seattle, WA, USA Department of Comparative Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA Search for more papers by this author C Anthony Blau C Anthony Blau Institute for Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine (ISCRM), Seattle, WA, USA Division of Hematology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA Search for more papers by this author Marshall S Horwitz Marshall S Horwitz Institute for Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine (ISCRM), Seattle, WA, USA Department of Pathology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA Search for more papers by this author David Hockenbery Corresponding Author David Hockenbery Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, WA, USA Search for more papers by this author Carol Ware Corresponding Author Carol Ware Institute for Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine (ISCRM), Seattle, WA, USA Department of Comparative Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA Search for more papers by this author Hannele Ruohola-Baker Corresponding Author Hannele Ruohola-Baker H Ruohola-Baker Department of Biology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA Institute for Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine (ISCRM), Seattle, WA, USA Department of Biochemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA Search for more papers by this author Author Information Wenyu Zhou1,2, Michael Choi2,3, Daciana Margineantu4, Lilyana Margaretha2,5, Jennifer Hesson2,6, Christopher Cavanaugh2,6, C Anthony Blau2,7, Marshall S Horwitz2,8, David Hockenbery 4, Carol Ware 2,6 and Hannele Ruohola-Baker 1,2,3 1H Ruohola-Baker Department of Biology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA 2Institute for Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine (ISCRM), Seattle, WA, USA 3Department of Biochemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA 4Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, WA, USA 5Molecular and Cellular Biology Program, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA 6Department of Comparative Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA 7Division of Hematology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA 8Department of Pathology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA *Corresponding authors: Department of Biochemistry, University of Washington, 815 MercerStreet, Seattle, WA 98195, USA. Tel.: +1 206 543 8468; Fax: +1 206 685 1357; E-mail: [email protected] or E-mail: [email protected] or E-mail: [email protected] The EMBO Journal (2012)31:2103-2116https://doi.org/10.1038/emboj.2012.71 PDFDownload PDF of article text and main figures. ToolsAdd to favoritesDownload CitationsTrack CitationsPermissions ShareFacebookTwitterLinked InMendeleyWechatReddit Figures & Info The function of metabolic state in stemness is poorly understood. Mouse embryonicstem cells (ESC) and epiblast stem cells (EpiSC) are at distinct pluripotent statesrepresenting the inner cell mass (ICM) and epiblast embryos. Human embryonic stemcells (hESC) are similar to EpiSC stage. We now show a dramatic metabolic differencebetween these two stages. EpiSC/hESC are highly glycolytic, while ESC are bivalentin their energy production, dynamically switching from glycolysis to mitochondrialrespiration on demand. Despite having a more developed and expanding mitochondrialcontent, EpiSC/hESC have low mitochondrial respiratory capacity due to lowcytochrome c oxidase (COX) expression. Similarly, in vivo epiblastssuppress COX levels. These data reveal EpiSC/hESC functional similarity to theglycolytic phenotype in cancer (Warburg effect). We further show thathypoxia-inducible factor 1α (HIF1α) is sufficient to drive ESC to aglycolytic Activin/Nodal-dependent EpiSC-like stage. This metabolic switch duringearly stem-cell development may be deterministic. Introduction Pluripotent embryonic stem cells (ESC) are able to self-renew and differentiate intothe three germ lineages. Unravelling the developmental mechanisms through whichpluripotency is maintained holds tremendous promise for understanding early animaldevelopment as well as developing regenerative medicine and cell therapies. Mouseand human ES cells are isolated from the inner cell mass (ICM) of pre-implantationembryos (Evans and Kaufman, 1981; Brook and Gardner, 1997; Thomson et al, 1998), while epiblast stem cells (EpiSC) represent cells from thepost-implantation epiblast, a later stage in development (Tesar et al, 2007). ESC and EpiSC are pluripotent, yet displaydistinct features in terms of gene expression, epigenetic modifications anddevelopmental capacity following blastocyst injection. Though isolated from the ICM,human embryonic stem cells (hESC) are similar to EpiSC based on transcriptional andprotein expression profiles and their epigenetic state. Thus, pluripotency does notrepresent a single defined state; subtle stages of pluripotency, with similaritiesand differences in measurable characteristics relating to gene expression andcellular phenotype, provide an experimental system for studying potential keyregulators that constrain or expand the developmental capacity of ESC. ESC, often termed naive pluripotent cells (Nichols and Smith, 2009), efficiently contribute to chimeric embryos, maintain both Xchromosomes in an active state (XaXa) in female cells, and are relatively refractoryin their potential to differentiate into primordial germ cells (PGCs) in vitro. EpiSC and hESC, primed pluripotent cells, can give rise todifferentiated teratomas, but EpiSC are highly inefficient in repopulating the ICMupon aggregation or injection into host blastocysts. These cells have variable andat times abnormal X-chromosome inactivation status (XiXa), and are poised fordifferentiation into PGC precursors in vitro (Brons et al, 2007; Tesar et al, 2007; Hayashi and Surani, 2009). NaiveESC can be cloned with high efficiency as packed domed colonies, and are stabilizedby LIF/Stat3 (Smith et al, 1988). In contrast,EpiSC and hESC are characterized by flat colony morphology, relative intolerance topassaging as single cells, and a dependence on bFGF and TGFβ/Activin signallingrather than LIF/Stat3 (James et al, 2005; Bendall et al, 2007; Greber et al, 2010). In order to understand how these pluripotent cells maintain their distinct abilitiesto self-renew and differentiate, global gene expression, epigenetic modification andprotein expression profiling have been employed to identify key regulators. Despitesignificant advances using these approaches, the framework defining pluripotency instem cells remains incompletely understood. This is in part due to the difficulty ofcorrelating expression data with functional activity. Given that the function andintegrity of a cell are affected by primary metabolism, a promising complementaryapproach is to directly explore the metabolic signatures that reflect the integratedfunction of multiple pathways operating within cells. In the current study, we evaluated the bioenergetic profiles of ESC, hESC and EpiSCwith respect to mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) copy number, cellular ATP levels, oxygenconsumption rate (OCR) and extracellular acidification rate (ECAR). We show thatwhile ESC are metabolically bivalent, EpiSC and hESC are almost exclusivelyglycolytic. We further show that hypoxia-inducible factor 1α (HIF1α) isan important regulator in the metabolic and functional transition from ESC to EpiSC.These results demonstrate a significant relationship between metabolic phenotype andpluripotent developmental stage that correlates with the underlying stem-cellfunctional biology. Results EpiSC and hESC are metabolically distinct from ESC To characterize the metabolic profiles of ESC, EpiSC and hESC, we initially measured two metabolic parameters: OCR and ECAR under various conditions and treatments using three different experimental systems (SeaHorse Extracellular Flux analyzer, Figure 1; Perifusion Flow System and Perifusion Microscopic System, Supplementary Figure 1). OCR mainly measures the level of mitochondrial respiration. ECAR correlates with glycolytic activity, since the major exported acid, lactic acid, is derived from pyruvate generated through glycolysis, recycling NADH to NAD+ for utilization in glycolysis. We used two representative cell lines for each pluripotency stage (ESC: R1 and G4; EpiSC: EpiSC#5 and EpiSC#7; and hESC: H1 and H7), and measured the baseline OCR of these cells in minimal medium. Interestingly, we found that both EpiSC and hESC have low basal OCRs (normalized to cell number or protein level; Supplementary Table 4) compared with ESC (Figure 1A and C). In the presence of glucose, the ECARs for EpiSC and hESC are substantially higher than for ESC (Figure 1B, E and F). This observation indicates a strong preference of EpiSC and hESC for glycolytic metabolism. The ECAR difference in ESC and EpiSC was confirmed by direct measurement of lactate levels in conditioned media (Figure 2A). The ECAR difference could also partially result from other possible acid generation, including monocarboxylates and CO2 produced from respiration. Furthermore, carbonyl cyanide 3-chlorophenylhydrazone (CCCP) was added in order to discharge the proton gradient thereby allowing maximal turnover of the electron transport chain (ETC) uncoupled from ATP synthesis. This analysis allows estimation of the maximal mitochondria reserve in the presence of glucose (Goldsby and Heytler, 1963; Heytler, 1963). A robust increase in OCR was detected in ESC in the presence of CCCP (Figure 1A and D; Supplementary Figure 1A and B). However, very little or no increase in OCR was observed with EpiSC or hESC (Figure 1A and D; Supplementary Figure 1A and B), indicating that these cell types have diminished mitochondrial functional reserves. The observed change in ECAR due to CCCP administration could be due to by increased glycolysis, or by increased CO2 production from the TCA cycle. From calculations based on OCR and ECAR changes upon glucose addition, we further show that ATP production upon glucose addition is higher in EpiSC and hESC than in ESC (Figure 1G), probably reflecting a higher glycolytic capacity in these cells. In contrast, cellular ATP content is lower in EpiSC than in ESC (Figure 1H), suggesting a high ATP consumption rate in EpiSC. To compare different stages of ES cells in human, we used hESC H1 cells treated with sodium butyrate as a developmentally earlier stage (Ware et al, 2009). We observed that, similar to EpiSC, hESC H1 cells contain a lower steady-state level of ATP compared with an earlier pluripotent stage (Supplementary Figure 2A). Taken together, these results demonstrate a clear metabolic difference between ESC as compared with EpiSC and hESC: the latter two cells are alike in terms of having lower mitochondrial respiration and higher glycolytic rate. These differences raise interesting questions as to how these metabolic changes occur and the impact of these differences on cellular pluripotency. Figure 1. EpiSC and hESC show similar metabolic profiles. EpiSC and hESC have lower mitochondrial respiration activity and higher glycolytic rate than ESC. Oxygen consumption rate (OCR) (A, C, D) and extracellular acidification rate (ECAR) (B, E, F) measured in SeaHorse Extracellular Flux assay are shown. To test energetic preference when glucose is present, 0.5 mM glucose, 2.5, 7 mM glucose and 500 nM CCCP, a mitochondria uncoupler, were injected during the experiment with the same time intervals; (A) and (B) are traces from a representative SeaHorse run. (G) ATP production was calculated directly from OCR and ECAR measured in SeaHorse assay following ATP produced=OCR × time course × 5+ECAR × time course. (H) ESC have higher ATP content as the steady-state level than EpiSC. Results were summarized from at least three independent biological experiments, each consisting of independent cell plating on five SeaHorse microplate wells. The error bars represented the standard error of the mean, as calculated by sample standard deviation divided by the square root of the sample size. *Indicates P<0.05. Download figure Download PowerPoint Figure 2. EpiSC are highly glycolytic compared with ESC. (A) EpiSC produce higher level of lactate, indicative of higher pyruvate generated through glycolysis. (B) ESC retain pluripotency in the presence of 2-deoxyglucose (2-DG), while EpiSC and hESC die upon 2-DG addition; Images for both bright fields and alkaline phosphatase (AP) staining are shown. (C) 2-DG results in higher ECAR reduction but lower OCR increase in EpiSC and hESC than in ESC, confirming the high glycolysis and low mitochondria reserve present in EpiSC. (D) The addition of Oxamate, an inhibitor of lactate dehydrogenase, results in higher ECAR reduction but lower OCR increase in EpiSC and hESC than in ESC, confirming the high glycolysis and low mitochondria reserve present in EpiSC. We did not observe differential expression of glucose transporters with significant trend in EpiSC compared with ESC (Supplementary Table 5), suggesting that the difference in glycolytic activity between EpiSC and ESC is not caused by glucose transporters levels. Results were summarized from two independent experiments, each consisting of independent cell plating on five SeaHorse microplate wells. The error bars represented the standard error of the mean. *Indicates P<0.05. Download figure Download PowerPoint EpiSC and hESC are highly glycolytic To further test the requirement for glycolysis in the two pluripotent stages, we cultured ESC, EpiSC and hESC with 2-deoxyglucose (2-DG), a glucose analogue that competes with glucose as a substrate for glycolytic enzymes and therefore acts as an inhibitor of glycolysis. In the presence of 2-DG, we observed that ESC grow more slowly, but maintain an ESC phenotype, forming domed cell colonies that stain with alkaline phosphatase (Figure 2B). However, EpiSC and hESC cannot survive in the presence of 2-DG (Figure 2B). In EpiSC and hESC, ECAR decreases to a greater extent than in ESC with addition of 2-DG (Figure 2C), however, unlike ESC, the ability to increase respiration to compensate for decreased glycolysis is greatly diminished at the EpiSC stage (in both EpiSC and hESC). A similar effect was observed using a lactate dehydrogenase inhibitor, oxamate (Figure 2D). In the presence of oxamate, pyruvate generated by glycolysis cannot be converted to lactate, but may be available for mitochondrial oxidation in the citric acid cycle, leading to an increase in mitochondrial respiration as observed in ESC. Our results showed that no increase in OCR was observed for EpiSC and hESC (Figure 2D). Taken together, these results indicate that glycolysis is essential for EpiSC and hESC bioenergetics due to their low mitochondrial respiratory capacity. EpiSC and hESC have more mature mitochondria but lower mitochondrial respiration than ESC Several additional lines of evidence further confirm that EpiSC and hESC have reduced mitochondrial respiration as compared with ESC. Treatment of these cells with oligomycin, an ATP synthase inhibitor (Chappell and Greville, 1961), resulted in similar residual OCR for ESC, EpiSC and hESC (Figure 3A). Since inhibition of mitochondrial ATP synthesis results in similar residual OCR, the higher OCR in ESC can be attributed to a higher level of coupled mitochondrial respiration. FCCP treatment following oligomycin resulted in higher OCR increase in ESC than in EpiSC and hESC (Figure 3A), confirming a higher level of maximal mitochondrial activity in ESC. Another mitochondrial uncoupler, 2,4-dinitrophenol (DNP) (Krahl and Clowes, 1936) also gave similar results to CCCP (Figure 3B). Figure 3. Lower mitochondrial respiration in EpiSC, compared with ESC, is not due to mitochondrial immaturity, low mitochondria number or lack of pyruvate accessibility to mitochondria. (A) The differences in OCR between ESC, EpiSC and hESC were abolished when oligomycin was present, confirming that the difference in the aerobic respiration was caused by difference in the oxidative phosphorylation. FCCP treatment following oligomycin resulted in higher OCR increase in ESC than in EpiSC and hESC, confirming the higher level of mitochondrial electron transport chain (ETC) activity in ESC. (B) Another mitochondrial uncoupler 2,4-DNP confirms that EpiSC and hESC have lower mitochondrial activity. Results were summarized from two independent experiments, and the error bars represented the standard error of the mean. (C–F) Electron microscopy shows that EpiSC and hESC contain more elongated mitochondria than ESC; 20 EM images containing 194 and 296 mitochondria were used, respectively, for ESC and EpiSC mitochondrial quantification, and 30 images containing 212 mitochondria were used for hESC mitochondrial quantification. (G) EpiSC and hESC have higher mitochondrial DNA copy number than ESC. (H) ESC but not EpiSC increase OCR in response to DCA. SeaHorse results were summarized from two independent experiments, each consisting of independent cell plating on five SeaHorse microplate wells. The error bars represented the standard error of the mean. *Indicates P<0.05. Download figure Download PowerPoint Lower mitochondrial respiration in EpiSC and hESC could be due to reduced numbers of mitochondria or reflect the developmental immaturity of mitochondria in these cells compared with ESC. To test this, we first examined morphology of mitochondria in EpiSC and hESC compared with ESC by electron microscopy. We observed that the majority of mitochondria in ESC are rounded to oval, displaying sparse and irregular cristae and an electron-lucent matrix, in contrast to the mitochondria of EpiSC and hESC, which are more elongated, and contain well-defined transverse cristae and a dense matrix (Figure 3C–E). Elongated mitochondria were observed about three and five times as frequently in EpiSC and hESC, respectively, as compared with ESC (Figure 3F). This morphological assessment suggests that the mitochondria of EpiSC and hESC are more mature in appearance than ESC, consistent with their relatively later developmental stage. Similarly, significantly higher mtDNA copy numbers were detected in EpiSC compared with ESC (Figure 3G), mtDNA copy number was also lower in hESC H1 cultured with sodium butyrate compared with H1 (Supplementary Figure 2B). These results stand in stark contrast to the lower respiratory activity of EpiSC and hESC relative to ESC. We also tested the possibility that diminished pyruvate oxidation by mitochondrial pyruvate dehydrogenase in EpiSC may cause the differences in mitochondrial respiration compared with ESC. Treatment with dichloroacetate, an inhibitor of pyruvate dehydrogenase kinases (Whitehouse et al, 1974), increased respiration in ESC, but not in EpiSC (Figure 3H). Reduced mitochondrial respiration in EpiSC and hESC is attributable to a deficiency in ETC complex IV cytochrome c oxidase In a search for other possible mechanisms accounting for the low mitochondrial respiration activity in EpiSC/hESC, we observed that EpiSC have lower mitochondrial membrane potential than ESC as measured by staining with tetramethylrhodamine methyl ester (TMRM) (Figure 4A), a dye that rapidly and reversibly equilibrates across membranes in a voltage-dependent manner (Ehrenberg et al, 1988). In agreement with a recent study (Folmes et al, 2011), we also observed that mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs) have less TMRM staining than ESC. Lower mitochondrial membrane potential seen in EpiSC suggests that the mitochondrial ETC may not operate sufficiently to generate an effective proton gradient. In order to identify mechanisms in mitochondrial ETC that could account for the lower membrane potential of EpiSC compared with ESC, we examined gene expression microarray data from these two types of cells (Tesar et al, 2007), and surprisingly, found that a majority of genes in mitochondrial complex I and IV are expressed at a lower level in EpiSC compared with ESC (Figure 4B; Supplementary Figure 3A and C). Notably, in the complex IV cytochrome c oxidase (COX) family, 20 out of a total of 22 nuclear-encoded genes are downregulated in EpiSC (P<0.005; Figure 4B). We further validated the significant reduction of key genes in these ETC components in EpiSC compared with ESC by quantitative PCR assay (Figure 4C), and compared the expression abundance of these key genes as compared with β-actin in mouse and human (Supplementary Table 1). Given the uniformly reduced expression of COX mRNAs in EpiSC, it is possible that translation and assembly of COX proteins are largely defective. To test whether COX activity is deficient in EpiSC and hESC, we prepared mitochondrial extracts from ESC and EpiSC, as well as two hESC lines, H1 and H7, to measure the COX activity in vitro. Indeed, there is about 40% reduction in COX activity per microgram of mitochondrial protein in EpiSC as compared with ESC (Figure 4D). We also observed that hESC resemble EpiSC in having a low level of COX activity (Figure 4D). Since complex IV levels are limiting and have previously been shown to tightly regulate mitochondrial respiratory capacity (Villani et al, 1998), low complex IV activity in EpiSC and hESC could explain their low mitochondrial respiration activity relative to ESC. Figure 4. Expression of nuclear-encoded mitochondrial IV COX genes is lower in EpiSC compared with ESC, resulting in lower complex IV activity in EpiSC. (A) EpiSC have lower mitochondrial membrane potential than ESC and MEFs measured by TMRM staining. (B) Heatmap of microarray expression data of mitochondrial complex IV COX gene cluster is shown, where EpiSC clearly demonstrate lower expression in these genes than ESC. (C) Validation of Cox8c, Cox6b2, Cox7a1 and NqoI by quantitative PCR assays. (D) Complex IV isolated from EpiSC or hESC (H1 and H7 lines) shows lower activity in vitro than that of ESC; the activity of Complex IV isolated from MEFs is shown as comparison. (E) Potential regulators involved in mitochondria respiration, SCO2, PGC-1β and Esrrb, express at lower levels in EpiSC. Results were summarized from three independent biological samples, and the error bars represented the standard error of the mean. *Indicates P<0.05, ** indicates P<0.01. Download figure Download PowerPoint We further found that expression of synthesis of cytochrome c oxidase 2 (SCO2), peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ coactivator-1β (PGC-1β) and oestrogen receptor-related receptor β (Esrrb, or ERR-β) is significantly lower in EpiSC as compared with ESC (Figure 4E). SCO2 is required for the assembly of the COX complex IV and mutation of this gene in humans results in fatal cardioencephalomyopathy due to mitochondrial respiratory failure (Papadopoulou et al, 1999) (other mitochondrial assembly factors were also examined in Supplementary Table 2). Similarly, PGC-1β controls mitochondrial oxidative metabolism by activating specific target genes that are key components of mitochondria, including those in the mitochondrial membrane and ETC (Lelliott et al, 2006; Sonoda et al, 2007). More specifically, PGC-1β could act as a ligand for Esrrb to control metabolism and energy balance (Kamei et al, 2003). Lower expression of SCO2, PGC-1β and Esrrb in EpiSC could contribute to the reduced mitochondrial respiration activity in these cells compared with ESC. Lower mitochondrial COX genes in post-implantation epiblast in vivo To test whether the metabolic differences between ESC and EpiSC reflect differences that exist in vivo, we compared our cell culture results with results obtained from high-throughput deep sequencing of mRNA using the freshly dissected ICM of pre-implantation embryos and the epiblast of post-implantation embryos (Figure 5) (manuscript in preparation). In agreement with results of ESC and EpiSC cultured in vitro, our deep RNA-sequence results reveal a significantly lower level of COX mRNA in the epiblast relative to the ICM (Figure 5A and B, in vivo: P<0.05, in vitro: P<0.01 as compared with all other genes). Further, close examination reveals high correlation in the most significantly downregulated COX genes (Figure 5C) and their regulators, PGC-1β and Esrrb in vivo versus in vitro (Figure 5D). These data confirm a dramatic downregulation of mitochondrial COX genes during the transition from ICM to epiblast in vivo. Figure 5. Deep RNA-sequence analysis of freshly dissected inner cell mass and epiblast reveals high similarity in mitochondrial COX gene expressions in vivo and in vitro. Expression levels of COX genes only are compared with that of all genes in the in-vivo data set (A) and in the in-vitro data set (B) to illustrate the downregulation of COX genes (in vivo: P<0.05; in vitro: P<0.01). (C) The comparison of the most significantly downregulated COX genes in-vivo and in-vitro data is shown. (D) High correlation of in-vivo and in-vitro data in the expression levels of PGC-1β and Esrrb is shown. Biological triplicates were used for each embryonic stage, the lysate comprised ∼50 embryos in each experiment. *Indicates P<0.05, ** indicates P<0.01. Download figure Download PowerPoint HIF1α is a key regulator of the pluripotent state To understand the drivers of the acquisition of a highly glycolytic state in EpiSC, we searched gene expression signatures in in vitro microarray data and identified the characteristic HIF1α-driven gene expression profile in EpiSC but not in ESC (Supplementary Table 3). We validated three of the key HIF1α targets, PDK1, LDHA and PYGL, in EpiSC compared with ESC, and observed a 10- to 70-fold increase in expression levels of these HIF1α targets in the EpiSC stage (Figure 6A). As a control, we observed the expected increase of Cer1 in EpiSC compared with the ESC stage. We further observed that HIF1α protein is present at a significantly higher level in EpiSC than in ESC (Figure 6B; Supplementary Figure 4). To test whether HIF1α is sufficient to induce the transition from ESC to EpiSC, we overexpressed or induced HIF1α in ESC transiently for 3 days in the presence of leukaemia inhibitory factor (LIF). Importantly, both expression of a non-degradable form o