Tat is an 86-amino acid protein involved in the replication of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1). Several studies have shown that exogenous Tat protein was able to translocate through the plasma membrane and to reach the nucleus to transactivate the viral genome. A region of the Tat protein centered on a cluster of basic amino acids has been assigned to this translocation activity. Recent data have demonstrated that chemical coupling of a Tat-derived peptide (extending from residues 37 to 72) to several proteins allowed their functional internalization into several cell lines or tissues. A part of this same domain can be folded in an α-helix structure with amphipathic characteristics. Such helical structures have been considered as key determinants for the uptake of several enveloped viruses by fusion or endocytosis. In the present study, we have delineated the main determinants required for Tat translocation within this sequence by synthesizing several peptides covering the Tat domain from residues 37 to 60. Unexpectedly, the domain extending from amino acid 37 to 47, which corresponds to the α-helix structure, is not required for cellular uptake and for nuclear translocation. Peptide internalization was assessed by direct labeling with fluorescein or by indirect immunofluorescence using a monoclonal antibody directed against the Tat basic cluster. Both approaches established that all peptides containing the basic domain are taken up by cells within less than 5 min at concentrations as low as 100 nm. In contrast, a peptide with a full α-helix but with a truncated basic amino acid cluster is not taken up by cells. The internalization process does not involve an endocytic pathway, as no inhibition of the uptake was observed at 4 °C. Similar observations have been reported for a basic amino acid-rich peptide derived from the Antennapedia homeodomain (1). Short peptides allowing efficient translocation through the plasma membrane could be useful vectors for the intracellular delivery of various non-permeant drugs including antisense oligonucleotides and peptides of pharmacological interest. Tat is an 86-amino acid protein involved in the replication of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1). Several studies have shown that exogenous Tat protein was able to translocate through the plasma membrane and to reach the nucleus to transactivate the viral genome. A region of the Tat protein centered on a cluster of basic amino acids has been assigned to this translocation activity. Recent data have demonstrated that chemical coupling of a Tat-derived peptide (extending from residues 37 to 72) to several proteins allowed their functional internalization into several cell lines or tissues. A part of this same domain can be folded in an α-helix structure with amphipathic characteristics. Such helical structures have been considered as key determinants for the uptake of several enveloped viruses by fusion or endocytosis. In the present study, we have delineated the main determinants required for Tat translocation within this sequence by synthesizing several peptides covering the Tat domain from residues 37 to 60. Unexpectedly, the domain extending from amino acid 37 to 47, which corresponds to the α-helix structure, is not required for cellular uptake and for nuclear translocation. Peptide internalization was assessed by direct labeling with fluorescein or by indirect immunofluorescence using a monoclonal antibody directed against the Tat basic cluster. Both approaches established that all peptides containing the basic domain are taken up by cells within less than 5 min at concentrations as low as 100 nm. In contrast, a peptide with a full α-helix but with a truncated basic amino acid cluster is not taken up by cells. The internalization process does not involve an endocytic pathway, as no inhibition of the uptake was observed at 4 °C. Similar observations have been reported for a basic amino acid-rich peptide derived from the Antennapedia homeodomain (1). Short peptides allowing efficient translocation through the plasma membrane could be useful vectors for the intracellular delivery of various non-permeant drugs including antisense oligonucleotides and peptides of pharmacological interest. Most "information-rich" molecules, such as oligonucleotides, genes, peptides, or proteins, are poorly taken up by cells since they do not efficiently cross the lipid bilayer of the plasma membrane or of the endocytic vesicles (Ref. 2Lebleu B. Trends Biotechnol. 1996; 14: 109-110Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (29) Google Scholar, and references therein). This is considered to be a major limitation for their ex vivo orin vivo use in fundamental studies or in possible clinical applications. These compounds are currently delivered by various techniques including microinjection, electroporation, association with cationic lipids, liposome encapsidation, or receptor-mediated endocytosis. Various problems have been encountered in their use including low transfer efficiency, complex manipulation, cellular toxicity, or immunogenicity, which would preclude their routine usein vivo. As an alternative, several peptides have been successfully used to improve the intracellular delivery of nucleic acids or proteins. The fusogenic properties of influenza virus have been extensively studied in this context. They are currently assigned to a pH-dependent conformational change of the viral hemagglutinin leading to the exposure of its hydrophobic N-terminal region, and to the fusion of the viral and endosomal membranes (3Plank C. Oberhauser B. Mechtler K. Koch C. Wagner E. J. Biol. Chem. 1994; 269: 12918-12924Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Google Scholar). A Tat mRNA-specific antisense oligonucleotide covalently bound to this fusogenic peptide has been demonstrated to have an increased antiviral activity in vitro, probably as a result of increased cellular uptake (4Bongartz J.P. Aubertin A.-M. Milhaud P.G. Lebleu B. Nucleic Acids Res. 1994; 22: 4681-4688Crossref PubMed Scopus (146) Google Scholar). Peptides adopting an amphipathic conformation at acidic pH largely increased the delivery of plasmid DNA complexed with transferrin-polylysine conjugates (5Wagner E. Plank C. Zatloukal K. Cotten M. Birnstiel M.L. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 1992; 89: 7934-7938Crossref PubMed Scopus (656) Google Scholar). Likewise, amphipathic characteristics have been described for a peptide derived from the third domain of Antennapedia homeodomain (1Derossi D. Joliot H.A. Chassaing G. Prochiantz A. J. Biol. Chem. 1994; 269: 10444-10450Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Google Scholar), which allows the delivery of antisense oligonucleotides or biologically active peptides. Interestingly, this peptide was efficiently translocated through the plasma membrane in the absence of energy (e.g. via a mechanism that does not involve endocytosis). The HIV 1The abbreviations used are: HIV, human immunodeficiency virus; NLS, nuclear localization signal; Boc,t-butyloxycarbonyl; HF, hydrogen fluoride; HPLC, high performance liquid chromatography; PBS, phosphate-buffered saline; FCS, fetal calf serum; NEM, N-ethylmaleimide; FACS, fluorescence-activated cell sorting; TAMRA-SE, tetramethylrhodamine succinimidyl ester; MTT, [3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyl-2H-tetrazolium bromide. 1The abbreviations used are: HIV, human immunodeficiency virus; NLS, nuclear localization signal; Boc,t-butyloxycarbonyl; HF, hydrogen fluoride; HPLC, high performance liquid chromatography; PBS, phosphate-buffered saline; FCS, fetal calf serum; NEM, N-ethylmaleimide; FACS, fluorescence-activated cell sorting; TAMRA-SE, tetramethylrhodamine succinimidyl ester; MTT, [3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyl-2H-tetrazolium bromide. Tat transactivation protein is efficiently taken up by cells (6Frankel A.D. Pabo C.O. Cell. 1988; 23: 1189-1193Abstract Full Text PDF Scopus (2287) Google Scholar, 7Mann D.A. Frankel A.D. EMBO J. 1991; 10: 1733-1739Crossref PubMed Scopus (443) Google Scholar, 8Vivès E. Charneau P. Van Rietschoten J. Rochat H. Bahraoui E. J. Virol. 1994; 68: 3343-3353Crossref PubMed Google Scholar), and concentrations as low as 1 nm in the culture media are sufficient to transactivate a reporter gene expressed from the HIV-1 promoter (6Frankel A.D. Pabo C.O. Cell. 1988; 23: 1189-1193Abstract Full Text PDF Scopus (2287) Google Scholar). The domain responsible for this translocation has been ascribed to the region centered on a basic domain of the Tat protein. A peptide extending from residues 37 to 72 allowed the internalization of conjugated proteins such as β-galactosidase or horseradish peroxidase (9Fawell S. Seery J. Daikh Y. Chen L.L. Pepinsky B. Barsoum J. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 1994; 91: 664-668Crossref PubMed Scopus (1096) Google Scholar). One to two Tat peptides/molecule of protein were sufficient to induce efficient translocation. Likewise, the Tat-(37–62) sequence conjugated to a Fab antibody fragment enhanced its in vitro cell surface association and internalization (10Anderson D.C. Nochols E. Manger R. Woodle D. Barry M. Fritzberg A.R. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 1993; 194: 876-884Crossref PubMed Scopus (87) Google Scholar). Physicochemical studies involving circular dichroism and energy minimization indicated that the region covering the Tat-(38–49) domain adopted an α-helical structure with amphipathic characteristics (11Loret E.P. Vivès E. Ho P.S. Rochat H. Van Rietschoten J. Johnson Jr., W.C. Biochemistry. 1991; 30: 6013-6023Crossref PubMed Scopus (60) Google Scholar). Both biological data and physicochemical studies were in keeping with a crucial role of the α-helix forming domain in Tat uptake. Most of these studies have concerned peptides extending from residues 37 to 72. These include other motifs of interest and in particular a cluster of basic amino acids extending from positions 49 to 58, which does not overlap the presumed amphipathic helical structure. This cluster of basic amino acids (Arg-Lys-Lys-Arg-Arg-Gln-Arg-Arg-Arg) appears to be unstructured due to charge repulsions (11Loret E.P. Vivès E. Ho P.S. Rochat H. Van Rietschoten J. Johnson Jr., W.C. Biochemistry. 1991; 30: 6013-6023Crossref PubMed Scopus (60) Google Scholar) and contains a nuclear localization signal (NLS) sequence (12Ruben S. Perkins A. Purcell R. Jounc K. Sia R. Burghoff R. Haseltine W.A. Rosen C.A. J. Virol. 1989; 63: 1-8Crossref PubMed Google Scholar).To delineate more precisely which determinants of the Tat-(37–60) peptide are crucial for Tat translocation and nucleolar localization, we have synthesized peptides harboring deletions in the purported α-helix domain or in the basic cluster. These peptides were assayed for their ability to translocate through the cell membrane in several cell lines. Cellular uptake and intracellular distribution were monitored by fluorescence microscopy using peptides labeled with fluorescein maleimide on their C-terminal cysteine or by indirect immunofluorescence using a monoclonal antibody directed against the Tat basic domain. Unexpectedly, the α-helix region did not appear to be required for efficient and fast cell uptake. In contrast, the whole basic domain from the Tat peptide appeared necessary for cell internalization.DISCUSSIONSeveral strategies have been proposed to improve the cellular uptake of proteins or nucleic acids. Some of these are based on the use of peptide sequences from proteins known to translocate through the plasma membrane. Along these lines, the HIV-1 Tat protein is able to cross the plasma membrane and to reach the cell nucleus to transactivate the viral genome (6Frankel A.D. Pabo C.O. Cell. 1988; 23: 1189-1193Abstract Full Text PDF Scopus (2287) Google Scholar, 7Mann D.A. Frankel A.D. EMBO J. 1991; 10: 1733-1739Crossref PubMed Scopus (443) Google Scholar, 8Vivès E. Charneau P. Van Rietschoten J. Rochat H. Bahraoui E. J. Virol. 1994; 68: 3343-3353Crossref PubMed Google Scholar). Moreover, a 35-amino acid peptide from Tat is able to promote the intracellular delivery of covalently bound proteins such as β-galactosidase, RNase A, or horseradish peroxidase in several cell lines and tissues (9Fawell S. Seery J. Daikh Y. Chen L.L. Pepinsky B. Barsoum J. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 1994; 91: 664-668Crossref PubMed Scopus (1096) Google Scholar). This peptide contains a cluster of basic amino acids extending from residues 49 to 58 and a sequence assumed to adopt an α-helical configuration (11Loret E.P. Vivès E. Ho P.S. Rochat H. Van Rietschoten J. Johnson Jr., W.C. Biochemistry. 1991; 30: 6013-6023Crossref PubMed Scopus (60) Google Scholar).The present study aimed at delineating whether shorter domains from this Tat peptide would be sufficient for cell internalization. The main determinant required for translocation was identified as the cluster of basic amino acids while the putative α-helix domain appeared dispensable. The full basic domain is required since a peptide deleted from the three arginine residues at its C-terminal end is not taken up by cells, even at high concentration. In keeping with a requirement for the full complement of positive charges in the Tat basic domain, any deletion or substitution of basic charges within the Tat-(48–60) peptide led to a reduced membrane translocating activity. 2E. Vivès, C. Granier, P. Prévot, and B. Lebleu (1997) Lett. Pept. Sci., in press. Shorter peptides such as Tat-(37–58) or Tat-(47–58) were less efficient carriers of proteins than the original 35-amino acid peptide (9Fawell S. Seery J. Daikh Y. Chen L.L. Pepinsky B. Barsoum J. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 1994; 91: 664-668Crossref PubMed Scopus (1096) Google Scholar). A steric hindrance between such short peptides and the bound protein could have reduced their availability for translocation.Along the same lines, a 16-amino acid peptide from the Antennapedia third helix homeodomain was described as having a good translocation ability through the plasma membrane, and it was initially assumed that its α-helix structure was important (1Derossi D. Joliot H.A. Chassaing G. Prochiantz A. J. Biol. Chem. 1994; 269: 10444-10450Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Google Scholar). Likewise, the fusogenic properties of several viral peptides have been ascribed to α-helical determinants (17Gaudin Y. Ruigrok R.W.H. Brunner J. J. Gen. Virol. 1995; 76: 1541-1556Crossref PubMed Scopus (114) Google Scholar). However, it was recently established that the insertion of proline residues, known to disrupt α-helical structures, did not abolish the translocation of the Antennapedia peptide (18Derossi D. Calvet S. Trembleau A. Brunissen A. Chassaing G. Prochiantz A. J. Biol. Chem. 1996; 271: 18188-18193Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (954) Google Scholar). The sequence of this active Antennapedia peptide analogue is Arg-Gln-Ile-Lys-Ile-Trp-Phe-Gln-Asn-Arg-Arg-Met-Lys-Trp-Lys-Lys. It contains five positive charges (two Arg and three Lys) within a linear sequence of seven residues at its C-terminal end. Similarly, the short Tat basic peptide described here contains eight positive charges within a sequence of nine residues. It is noteworthy that a shorter peptide from Antennapedia deleted of the C-terminal Trp-Lys-Lys residues (i.e. lacking two positive charges) was not internalized (1Derossi D. Joliot H.A. Chassaing G. Prochiantz A. J. Biol. Chem. 1994; 269: 10444-10450Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Google Scholar). Although the tryptophan residue was shown to play a role in the translocation event (1Derossi D. Joliot H.A. Chassaing G. Prochiantz A. J. Biol. Chem. 1994; 269: 10444-10450Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Google Scholar), an additional effect of the two Lys residues was not evaluated independently. The data reported with the Antennapedia peptide and those obtained in the present study with the Tat peptide strongly suggest that internalization could be linked to the presence of a high density of positive charges within a short sequence.Both the full-length Antennapedia (1Derossi D. Joliot H.A. Chassaing G. Prochiantz A. J. Biol. Chem. 1994; 269: 10444-10450Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Google Scholar) and the Tat-(48–60) peptides (Fig. 1) are taken up efficiently at 4 °C. Likewise, several drugs known to interfere with caveolae-mediated uptake did not affect Tat uptake in our studies. Altogether, these studies strongly suggest that endocytosis is not involved in the uptake of these short basic peptides. On the other hand, the incubation of the Tat peptides with various unbound fluorochromes or with a non-permeant peptide did not induce their uptake. Taken together, these experiments do not support the involvement of a significant membrane disruption by Tat basic peptides or a well defined internalization pathway.The mechanism of translocation of the Tat basic peptide could be analogous to the model proposed for the Antennapedia homeodomain peptide (18Derossi D. Calvet S. Trembleau A. Brunissen A. Chassaing G. Prochiantz A. J. Biol. Chem. 1996; 271: 18188-18193Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (954) Google Scholar). A tight ionic interaction between the basic groups of the peptide side chains and the negative charges of the phospholipid heads could induce a local invagination of the plasma membrane. The local reorganization of the phospholipid bilayer would then lead to the formation of inverted micelles with the peptide enclosed in the hydrophilic cavity and ultimately to the cytoplasmic release of the peptide. Because of the presence of a nuclear localization signal, the Tat peptide is rapidly translocated and concentrates in the nucleus. This would limit its release from the cell by the same mechanism. Further experiments are in progress to assess the reality of this working hypothesis. Additional studies will be required to define more accurately the structural requirements for this translocation activity and to uncover the mechanism by which Tat and possibly other basic peptides cross the plasma membrane.The translocation activity of such small Tat-derived peptides is powerful, as nuclear localization was observed after a few minutes of incubation with the cells. Internalization could be monitored in the micromolar concentration range by indirect immunofluorescence with peptide-specific antibodies or even at an order of magnitude lower by direct labeling of the peptide with a fluorochrome. Previous studies with the Antennapedia peptide made use of incubation times of several hours and routine concentrations of 20 μm (1Derossi D. Joliot H.A. Chassaing G. Prochiantz A. J. Biol. Chem. 1994; 269: 10444-10450Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Google Scholar). These differences were confirmed in a comparative study using the same fluorescein-labeling method for both peptides with Antennapedia peptide kindly provided by G. Chassaing and A. Prochiantz (CNRS URA1414, Ecole Normale Supérieure, Paris, France) (data not shown).The indirect immunodetection of the Tat peptide ensures that its ability to translocate through the plasma membrane was not altered by the reporter group itself. In most published studies, the possible influence of the fluorochrome reporter group or of the biotin-linking arm on the behavior of the peptide was not assessed. Along these lines, the biotinylation of a Tat peptide increased by 6-fold its uptake as compared with the non-biotinylated peptide (19Chen L., L. Frankel A.D. Harder J.L. Fawell S. Barsoum J. Anal. Biochem. 1995; 227: 168-175Crossref PubMed Scopus (30) Google Scholar).The internalization properties of these small Tat basic peptides could then be exploited for the intracellular delivery and for the nuclear targeting of conjugated non-permeant molecules. Ongoing work in our group aims at establishing whether the covalent conjugation through various linking arms of short Tat basic peptides to antisense oligonucleotides, to peptide nucleic acids, or to peptides will lead to their nuclear accumulation. Preliminary data indicate that a peptide which did not enter the cell by itself could be efficiently internalized when conjugated to the shorter Tat peptide.2Along the same lines the covalent linking of a 15-mer oligonucleotides to the 16-amino acid Antennapedia peptide led to improved intracellular delivery and to a significant increase in biological activity (20Allinquant B. Hantraye P. Mailleux P. Moya K. Bouillot C. Prochiantz A. J. Cell Biol. 1995; 128: 919-927Crossref PubMed Scopus (234) Google Scholar).Peptides bearing a high density of basic residues might also improve hybridization properties of antisense oligonucleotides. Previous studies have indeed described the enhanced affinities and kinetics of hybridization for its target sequence of an oligonucleotide covalently linked to a polyarginine sequence (21Wei Z. Tung C.H. Zhu T. Dickerhof W.A. Breslauer K.J. Georgopoulos D.E. Leibowitz M.J. Stein S. Nucleic Acids Res. 1996; 24: 655-661Crossref PubMed Scopus (28) Google Scholar). Most "information-rich" molecules, such as oligonucleotides, genes, peptides, or proteins, are poorly taken up by cells since they do not efficiently cross the lipid bilayer of the plasma membrane or of the endocytic vesicles (Ref. 2Lebleu B. Trends Biotechnol. 1996; 14: 109-110Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (29) Google Scholar, and references therein). This is considered to be a major limitation for their ex vivo orin vivo use in fundamental studies or in possible clinical applications. These compounds are currently delivered by various techniques including microinjection, electroporation, association with cationic lipids, liposome encapsidation, or receptor-mediated endocytosis. Various problems have been encountered in their use including low transfer efficiency, complex manipulation, cellular toxicity, or immunogenicity, which would preclude their routine usein vivo. As an alternative, several peptides have been successfully used to improve the intracellular delivery of nucleic acids or proteins. The fusogenic properties of influenza virus have been extensively studied in this context. They are currently assigned to a pH-dependent conformational change of the viral hemagglutinin leading to the exposure of its hydrophobic N-terminal region, and to the fusion of the viral and endosomal membranes (3Plank C. Oberhauser B. Mechtler K. Koch C. Wagner E. J. Biol. Chem. 1994; 269: 12918-12924Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Google Scholar). A Tat mRNA-specific antisense oligonucleotide covalently bound to this fusogenic peptide has been demonstrated to have an increased antiviral activity in vitro, probably as a result of increased cellular uptake (4Bongartz J.P. Aubertin A.-M. Milhaud P.G. Lebleu B. Nucleic Acids Res. 1994; 22: 4681-4688Crossref PubMed Scopus (146) Google Scholar). Peptides adopting an amphipathic conformation at acidic pH largely increased the delivery of plasmid DNA complexed with transferrin-polylysine conjugates (5Wagner E. Plank C. Zatloukal K. Cotten M. Birnstiel M.L. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 1992; 89: 7934-7938Crossref PubMed Scopus (656) Google Scholar). Likewise, amphipathic characteristics have been described for a peptide derived from the third domain of Antennapedia homeodomain (1Derossi D. Joliot H.A. Chassaing G. Prochiantz A. J. Biol. Chem. 1994; 269: 10444-10450Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Google Scholar), which allows the delivery of antisense oligonucleotides or biologically active peptides. Interestingly, this peptide was efficiently translocated through the plasma membrane in the absence of energy (e.g. via a mechanism that does not involve endocytosis). The HIV 1The abbreviations used are: HIV, human immunodeficiency virus; NLS, nuclear localization signal; Boc,t-butyloxycarbonyl; HF, hydrogen fluoride; HPLC, high performance liquid chromatography; PBS, phosphate-buffered saline; FCS, fetal calf serum; NEM, N-ethylmaleimide; FACS, fluorescence-activated cell sorting; TAMRA-SE, tetramethylrhodamine succinimidyl ester; MTT, [3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyl-2H-tetrazolium bromide. 1The abbreviations used are: HIV, human immunodeficiency virus; NLS, nuclear localization signal; Boc,t-butyloxycarbonyl; HF, hydrogen fluoride; HPLC, high performance liquid chromatography; PBS, phosphate-buffered saline; FCS, fetal calf serum; NEM, N-ethylmaleimide; FACS, fluorescence-activated cell sorting; TAMRA-SE, tetramethylrhodamine succinimidyl ester; MTT, [3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyl-2H-tetrazolium bromide. Tat transactivation protein is efficiently taken up by cells (6Frankel A.D. Pabo C.O. Cell. 1988; 23: 1189-1193Abstract Full Text PDF Scopus (2287) Google Scholar, 7Mann D.A. Frankel A.D. EMBO J. 1991; 10: 1733-1739Crossref PubMed Scopus (443) Google Scholar, 8Vivès E. Charneau P. Van Rietschoten J. Rochat H. Bahraoui E. J. Virol. 1994; 68: 3343-3353Crossref PubMed Google Scholar), and concentrations as low as 1 nm in the culture media are sufficient to transactivate a reporter gene expressed from the HIV-1 promoter (6Frankel A.D. Pabo C.O. Cell. 1988; 23: 1189-1193Abstract Full Text PDF Scopus (2287) Google Scholar). The domain responsible for this translocation has been ascribed to the region centered on a basic domain of the Tat protein. A peptide extending from residues 37 to 72 allowed the internalization of conjugated proteins such as β-galactosidase or horseradish peroxidase (9Fawell S. Seery J. Daikh Y. Chen L.L. Pepinsky B. Barsoum J. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 1994; 91: 664-668Crossref PubMed Scopus (1096) Google Scholar). One to two Tat peptides/molecule of protein were sufficient to induce efficient translocation. Likewise, the Tat-(37–62) sequence conjugated to a Fab antibody fragment enhanced its in vitro cell surface association and internalization (10Anderson D.C. Nochols E. Manger R. Woodle D. Barry M. Fritzberg A.R. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 1993; 194: 876-884Crossref PubMed Scopus (87) Google Scholar). Physicochemical studies involving circular dichroism and energy minimization indicated that the region covering the Tat-(38–49) domain adopted an α-helical structure with amphipathic characteristics (11Loret E.P. Vivès E. Ho P.S. Rochat H. Van Rietschoten J. Johnson Jr., W.C. Biochemistry. 1991; 30: 6013-6023Crossref PubMed Scopus (60) Google Scholar). Both biological data and physicochemical studies were in keeping with a crucial role of the α-helix forming domain in Tat uptake. Most of these studies have concerned peptides extending from residues 37 to 72. These include other motifs of interest and in particular a cluster of basic amino acids extending from positions 49 to 58, which does not overlap the presumed amphipathic helical structure. This cluster of basic amino acids (Arg-Lys-Lys-Arg-Arg-Gln-Arg-Arg-Arg) appears to be unstructured due to charge repulsions (11Loret E.P. Vivès E. Ho P.S. Rochat H. Van Rietschoten J. Johnson Jr., W.C. Biochemistry. 1991; 30: 6013-6023Crossref PubMed Scopus (60) Google Scholar) and contains a nuclear localization signal (NLS) sequence (12Ruben S. Perkins A. Purcell R. Jounc K. Sia R. Burghoff R. Haseltine W.A. Rosen C.A. J. Virol. 1989; 63: 1-8Crossref PubMed Google Scholar). To delineate more precisely which determinants of the Tat-(37–60) peptide are crucial for Tat translocation and nucleolar localization, we have synthesized peptides harboring deletions in the purported α-helix domain or in the basic cluster. These peptides were assayed for their ability to translocate through the cell membrane in several cell lines. Cellular uptake and intracellular distribution were monitored by fluorescence microscopy using peptides labeled with fluorescein maleimide on their C-terminal cysteine or by indirect immunofluorescence using a monoclonal antibody directed against the Tat basic domain. Unexpectedly, the α-helix region did not appear to be required for efficient and fast cell uptake. In contrast, the whole basic domain from the Tat peptide appeared necessary for cell internalization. DISCUSSIONSeveral strategies have been proposed to improve the cellular uptake of proteins or nucleic acids. Some of these are based on the use of peptide sequences from proteins known to translocate through the plasma membrane. Along these lines, the HIV-1 Tat protein is able to cross the plasma membrane and to reach the cell nucleus to transactivate the viral genome (6Frankel A.D. Pabo C.O. Cell. 1988; 23: 1189-1193Abstract Full Text PDF Scopus (2287) Google Scholar, 7Mann D.A. Frankel A.D. EMBO J. 1991; 10: 1733-1739Crossref PubMed Scopus (443) Google Scholar, 8Vivès E. Charneau P. Van Rietschoten J. Rochat H. Bahraoui E. J. Virol. 1994; 68: 3343-3353Crossref PubMed Google Scholar). Moreover, a 35-amino acid peptide from Tat is able to promote the intracellular delivery of covalently bound proteins such as β-galactosidase, RNase A, or horseradish peroxidase in several cell lines and tissues (9Fawell S. Seery J. Daikh Y. Chen L.L. Pepinsky B. Barsoum J. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 1994; 91: 664-668Crossref PubMed Scopus (1096) Google Scholar). This peptide contains a cluster of basic amino acids extending from residues 49 to 58 and a sequence assumed to adopt an α-helical configuration (11Loret E.P. Vivès E. Ho P.S. Rochat H. Van Rietschoten J. Johnson Jr., W.C. Biochemistry. 1991; 30: 6013-6023Crossref PubMed Scopus (60) Google Scholar).The present study aimed at delineating whether shorter domains from this Tat peptide would be sufficient for cell internalization. The main determinant required for translocation was identified as the cluster of basic amino acids while the putative α-helix domain appeared dispensable. The full basic domain is required since a peptide deleted from the three arginine residues at its C-terminal end is not taken up by cells, even at high concentration. In keeping with a requirement for the full complement of positive charges in the Tat basic domain, any deletion or substitution of basic charges within the Tat-(48–60) peptide led to a reduced membrane translocating activity. 2E. Vivès, C. Granier, P. Prévot, and B. Lebleu (1997) Lett. Pept. Sci., in press. Shorter peptides such as Tat-(37–58) or Tat-(47–58) were less efficient carriers of proteins than the original 35-amino acid peptide (9Fawell S. Seery J. Daikh Y. Chen L.L. Pepinsky B. Barsoum J. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 1994; 91: 664-668Crossref PubMed Scopus (1096) Google Scholar). A steric hindrance between such short peptides and the bound protein could have reduced their availability for translocation.Along the same lines, a 16-amino acid peptide from the Antennapedia third helix homeodomain was described as having a good translocation ability through the plasma membrane, and it was initially assumed that its α-helix structure was important (1Derossi D. Joliot H.A. Chassaing G. Prochiantz A. J. Biol. Chem. 1994; 269: 10444-10450Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Google Scholar). Likewise, the fusogenic properties of several viral peptides have been ascribed to α-helical determinants (17Gaudin Y. Ruigrok R.W.H. Brunner J. J. Gen. Virol. 1995; 76: 1541-1556Crossref PubMed Scopus (114) Google Scholar). However, it was recently established that the insertion of proline residues, known to disrupt α-helical structures, did not abolish the translocation of the Antennapedia peptide (18Derossi D. Calvet S. Trembleau A. Brunissen A. Chassaing G. Prochiantz A. J. Biol. Chem. 1996; 271: 18188-18193Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (954) Google Scholar). The sequence of this active Antennapedia peptide analogue is Arg-Gln-Ile-Lys-Ile-Trp-Phe-Gln-Asn-Arg-Arg-Met-Lys-Trp-Lys-Lys. It contains five positive charges (two Arg and three Lys) within a linear sequence of seven residues at its C-terminal end. Similarly, the short Tat basic peptide described here contains eight positive charges within a sequence of nine residues. It is noteworthy that a shorter peptide from Antennapedia deleted of the C-terminal Trp-Lys-Lys residues (i.e. lacking two positive charges) was not internalized (1Derossi D. Joliot H.A. Chassaing G. Prochiantz A. J. Biol. Chem. 1994; 269: 10444-10450Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Google Scholar). Although the tryptophan residue was shown to play a role in the translocation event (1Derossi D. Joliot H.A. Chassaing G. Prochiantz A. J. Biol. Chem. 1994; 269: 10444-10450Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Google Scholar), an additional effect of the two Lys residues was not evaluated independently. The data reported with the Antennapedia peptide and those obtained in the present study with the Tat peptide strongly suggest that internalization could be linked to the presence of a high density of positive charges within a short sequence.Both the full-length Antennapedia (1Derossi D. Joliot H.A. Chassaing G. Prochiantz A. J. Biol. Chem. 1994; 269: 10444-10450Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Google Scholar) and the Tat-(48–60) peptides (Fig. 1) are taken up efficiently at 4 °C. Likewise, several drugs known to interfere with caveolae-mediated uptake did not affect Tat uptake in our studies. Altogether, these studies strongly suggest that endocytosis is not involved in the uptake of these short basic peptides. On the other hand, the incubation of the Tat peptides with various unbound fluorochromes or with a non-permeant peptide did not induce their uptake. Taken together, these experiments do not support the involvement of a significant membrane disruption by Tat basic peptides or a well defined internalization pathway.The mechanism of translocation of the Tat basic peptide could be analogous to the model proposed for the Antennapedia homeodomain peptide (18Derossi D. Calvet S. Trembleau A. Brunissen A. Chassaing G. Prochiantz A. J. Biol. Chem. 1996; 271: 18188-18193Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (954) Google Scholar). A tight ionic interaction between the basic groups of the peptide side chains and the negative charges of the phospholipid heads could induce a local invagination of the plasma membrane. The local reorganization of the phospholipid bilayer would then lead to the formation of inverted micelles with the peptide enclosed in the hydrophilic cavity and ultimately to the cytoplasmic release of the peptide. Because of the presence of a nuclear localization signal, the Tat peptide is rapidly translocated and concentrates in the nucleus. This would limit its release from the cell by the same mechanism. Further experiments are in progress to assess the reality of this working hypothesis. Additional studies will be required to define more accurately the structural requirements for this translocation activity and to uncover the mechanism by which Tat and possibly other basic peptides cross the plasma membrane.The translocation activity of such small Tat-derived peptides is powerful, as nuclear localization was observed after a few minutes of incubation with the cells. Internalization could be monitored in the micromolar concentration range by indirect immunofluorescence with peptide-specific antibodies or even at an order of magnitude lower by direct labeling of the peptide with a fluorochrome. Previous studies with the Antennapedia peptide made use of incubation times of several hours and routine concentrations of 20 μm (1Derossi D. Joliot H.A. Chassaing G. Prochiantz A. J. Biol. Chem. 1994; 269: 10444-10450Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Google Scholar). These differences were confirmed in a comparative study using the same fluorescein-labeling method for both peptides with Antennapedia peptide kindly provided by G. Chassaing and A. Prochiantz (CNRS URA1414, Ecole Normale Supérieure, Paris, France) (data not shown).The indirect immunodetection of the Tat peptide ensures that its ability to translocate through the plasma membrane was not altered by the reporter group itself. In most published studies, the possible influence of the fluorochrome reporter group or of the biotin-linking arm on the behavior of the peptide was not assessed. Along these lines, the biotinylation of a Tat peptide increased by 6-fold its uptake as compared with the non-biotinylated peptide (19Chen L., L. Frankel A.D. Harder J.L. Fawell S. Barsoum J. Anal. Biochem. 1995; 227: 168-175Crossref PubMed Scopus (30) Google Scholar).The internalization properties of these small Tat basic peptides could then be exploited for the intracellular delivery and for the nuclear targeting of conjugated non-permeant molecules. Ongoing work in our group aims at establishing whether the covalent conjugation through various linking arms of short Tat basic peptides to antisense oligonucleotides, to peptide nucleic acids, or to peptides will lead to their nuclear accumulation. Preliminary data indicate that a peptide which did not enter the cell by itself could be efficiently internalized when conjugated to the shorter Tat peptide.2Along the same lines the covalent linking of a 15-mer oligonucleotides to the 16-amino acid Antennapedia peptide led to improved intracellular delivery and to a significant increase in biological activity (20Allinquant B. Hantraye P. Mailleux P. Moya K. Bouillot C. Prochiantz A. J. Cell Biol. 1995; 128: 919-927Crossref PubMed Scopus (234) Google Scholar).Peptides bearing a high density of basic residues might also improve hybridization properties of antisense oligonucleotides. Previous studies have indeed described the enhanced affinities and kinetics of hybridization for its target sequence of an oligonucleotide covalently linked to a polyarginine sequence (21Wei Z. Tung C.H. Zhu T. Dickerhof W.A. Breslauer K.J. Georgopoulos D.E. Leibowitz M.J. Stein S. Nucleic Acids Res. 1996; 24: 655-661Crossref PubMed Scopus (28) Google Scholar). Several strategies have been proposed to improve the cellular uptake of proteins or nucleic acids. Some of these are based on the use of peptide sequences from proteins known to translocate through the plasma membrane. Along these lines, the HIV-1 Tat protein is able to cross the plasma membrane and to reach the cell nucleus to transactivate the viral genome (6Frankel A.D. Pabo C.O. Cell. 1988; 23: 1189-1193Abstract Full Text PDF Scopus (2287) Google Scholar, 7Mann D.A. Frankel A.D. EMBO J. 1991; 10: 1733-1739Crossref PubMed Scopus (443) Google Scholar, 8Vivès E. Charneau P. Van Rietschoten J. Rochat H. Bahraoui E. J. Virol. 1994; 68: 3343-3353Crossref PubMed Google Scholar). Moreover, a 35-amino acid peptide from Tat is able to promote the intracellular delivery of covalently bound proteins such as β-galactosidase, RNase A, or horseradish peroxidase in several cell lines and tissues (9Fawell S. Seery J. Daikh Y. Chen L.L. Pepinsky B. Barsoum J. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 1994; 91: 664-668Crossref PubMed Scopus (1096) Google Scholar). This peptide contains a cluster of basic amino acids extending from residues 49 to 58 and a sequence assumed to adopt an α-helical configuration (11Loret E.P. Vivès E. Ho P.S. Rochat H. Van Rietschoten J. Johnson Jr., W.C. Biochemistry. 1991; 30: 6013-6023Crossref PubMed Scopus (60) Google Scholar). The present study aimed at delineating whether shorter domains from this Tat peptide would be sufficient for cell internalization. The main determinant required for translocation was identified as the cluster of basic amino acids while the putative α-helix domain appeared dispensable. The full basic domain is required since a peptide deleted from the three arginine residues at its C-terminal end is not taken up by cells, even at high concentration. In keeping with a requirement for the full complement of positive charges in the Tat basic domain, any deletion or substitution of basic charges within the Tat-(48–60) peptide led to a reduced membrane translocating activity. 2E. Vivès, C. Granier, P. Prévot, and B. Lebleu (1997) Lett. Pept. Sci., in press. Shorter peptides such as Tat-(37–58) or Tat-(47–58) were less efficient carriers of proteins than the original 35-amino acid peptide (9Fawell S. Seery J. Daikh Y. Chen L.L. Pepinsky B. Barsoum J. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 1994; 91: 664-668Crossref PubMed Scopus (1096) Google Scholar). A steric hindrance between such short peptides and the bound protein could have reduced their availability for translocation. Along the same lines, a 16-amino acid peptide from the Antennapedia third helix homeodomain was described as having a good translocation ability through the plasma membrane, and it was initially assumed that its α-helix structure was important (1Derossi D. Joliot H.A. Chassaing G. Prochiantz A. J. Biol. Chem. 1994; 269: 10444-10450Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Google Scholar). Likewise, the fusogenic properties of several viral peptides have been ascribed to α-helical determinants (17Gaudin Y. Ruigrok R.W.H. Brunner J. J. Gen. Virol. 1995; 76: 1541-1556Crossref PubMed Scopus (114) Google Scholar). However, it was recently established that the insertion of proline residues, known to disrupt α-helical structures, did not abolish the translocation of the Antennapedia peptide (18Derossi D. Calvet S. Trembleau A. Brunissen A. Chassaing G. Prochiantz A. J. Biol. Chem. 1996; 271: 18188-18193Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (954) Google Scholar). The sequence of this active Antennapedia peptide analogue is Arg-Gln-Ile-Lys-Ile-Trp-Phe-Gln-Asn-Arg-Arg-Met-Lys-Trp-Lys-Lys. It contains five positive charges (two Arg and three Lys) within a linear sequence of seven residues at its C-terminal end. Similarly, the short Tat basic peptide described here contains eight positive charges within a sequence of nine residues. It is noteworthy that a shorter peptide from Antennapedia deleted of the C-terminal Trp-Lys-Lys residues (i.e. lacking two positive charges) was not internalized (1Derossi D. Joliot H.A. Chassaing G. Prochiantz A. J. Biol. Chem. 1994; 269: 10444-10450Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Google Scholar). Although the tryptophan residue was shown to play a role in the translocation event (1Derossi D. Joliot H.A. Chassaing G. Prochiantz A. J. Biol. Chem. 1994; 269: 10444-10450Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Google Scholar), an additional effect of the two Lys residues was not evaluated independently. The data reported with the Antennapedia peptide and those obtained in the present study with the Tat peptide strongly suggest that internalization could be linked to the presence of a high density of positive charges within a short sequence. Both the full-length Antennapedia (1Derossi D. Joliot H.A. Chassaing G. Prochiantz A. J. Biol. Chem. 1994; 269: 10444-10450Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Google Scholar) and the Tat-(48–60) peptides (Fig. 1) are taken up efficiently at 4 °C. Likewise, several drugs known to interfere with caveolae-mediated uptake did not affect Tat uptake in our studies. Altogether, these studies strongly suggest that endocytosis is not involved in the uptake of these short basic peptides. On the other hand, the incubation of the Tat peptides with various unbound fluorochromes or with a non-permeant peptide did not induce their uptake. Taken together, these experiments do not support the involvement of a significant membrane disruption by Tat basic peptides or a well defined internalization pathway. The mechanism of translocation of the Tat basic peptide could be analogous to the model proposed for the Antennapedia homeodomain peptide (18Derossi D. Calvet S. Trembleau A. Brunissen A. Chassaing G. Prochiantz A. J. Biol. Chem. 1996; 271: 18188-18193Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (954) Google Scholar). A tight ionic interaction between the basic groups of the peptide side chains and the negative charges of the phospholipid heads could induce a local invagination of the plasma membrane. The local reorganization of the phospholipid bilayer would then lead to the formation of inverted micelles with the peptide enclosed in the hydrophilic cavity and ultimately to the cytoplasmic release of the peptide. Because of the presence of a nuclear localization signal, the Tat peptide is rapidly translocated and concentrates in the nucleus. This would limit its release from the cell by the same mechanism. Further experiments are in progress to assess the reality of this working hypothesis. Additional studies will be required to define more accurately the structural requirements for this translocation activity and to uncover the mechanism by which Tat and possibly other basic peptides cross the plasma membrane. The translocation activity of such small Tat-derived peptides is powerful, as nuclear localization was observed after a few minutes of incubation with the cells. Internalization could be monitored in the micromolar concentration range by indirect immunofluorescence with peptide-specific antibodies or even at an order of magnitude lower by direct labeling of the peptide with a fluorochrome. Previous studies with the Antennapedia peptide made use of incubation times of several hours and routine concentrations of 20 μm (1Derossi D. Joliot H.A. Chassaing G. Prochiantz A. J. Biol. Chem. 1994; 269: 10444-10450Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Google Scholar). These differences were confirmed in a comparative study using the same fluorescein-labeling method for both peptides with Antennapedia peptide kindly provided by G. Chassaing and A. Prochiantz (CNRS URA1414, Ecole Normale Supérieure, Paris, France) (data not shown). The indirect immunodetection of the Tat peptide ensures that its ability to translocate through the plasma membrane was not altered by the reporter group itself. In most published studies, the possible influence of the fluorochrome reporter group or of the biotin-linking arm on the behavior of the peptide was not assessed. Along these lines, the biotinylation of a Tat peptide increased by 6-fold its uptake as compared with the non-biotinylated peptide (19Chen L., L. Frankel A.D. Harder J.L. Fawell S. Barsoum J. Anal. Biochem. 1995; 227: 168-175Crossref PubMed Scopus (30) Google Scholar). The internalization properties of these small Tat basic peptides could then be exploited for the intracellular delivery and for the nuclear targeting of conjugated non-permeant molecules. Ongoing work in our group aims at establishing whether the covalent conjugation through various linking arms of short Tat basic peptides to antisense oligonucleotides, to peptide nucleic acids, or to peptides will lead to their nuclear accumulation. Preliminary data indicate that a peptide which did not enter the cell by itself could be efficiently internalized when conjugated to the shorter Tat peptide.2Along the same lines the covalent linking of a 15-mer oligonucleotides to the 16-amino acid Antennapedia peptide led to improved intracellular delivery and to a significant increase in biological activity (20Allinquant B. Hantraye P. Mailleux P. Moya K. Bouillot C. Prochiantz A. J. Cell Biol. 1995; 128: 919-927Crossref PubMed Scopus (234) Google Scholar). Peptides bearing a high density of basic residues might also improve hybridization properties of antisense oligonucleotides. Previous studies have indeed described the enhanced affinities and kinetics of hybridization for its target sequence of an oligonucleotide covalently linked to a polyarginine sequence (21Wei Z. Tung C.H. Zhu T. Dickerhof W.A. Breslauer K.J. Georgopoulos D.E. Leibowitz M.J. Stein S. Nucleic Acids Res. 1996; 24: 655-661Crossref PubMed Scopus (28) Google Scholar). We thank Dr. P. Prévot for fluorescence imaging and computerized analysis of pictures. We are grateful to Drs. J.-P. Briand and J. Neimark (IBMC, Strasbourg, France) as well as to J. Méry (CRBM, Montpellier, France) for the use of their peptide synthesizers and to Dr. C. Granier (U. Montpellier I) for the synthesis of several peptides, to J-A Fehrentz (U. Montpellier I) for HF facilities, to J.-P. Capony (CRBM, CNRS) for amino acid analysis, and to B. Calas (CRBM, CNRS) for electrospray ionization mass spectrometry. We also thank N. Mechti and other colleagues from the Institut de Génétique Moléculaire for fruitful discussions and I. Robbins for proofreading of the manuscript.