angiotensin-converting enzyme American College of Physicians antihistamine/decongestant American Thoracic Society bronchoprovocation challenge Canadian Thoracic Society diffuse panbronchiolitis acellular pertussis fiberoptic endoscopic evaluation of swallowing gastroesophageal reflux disease high-resolution CT Health and Science Policy Committee inflammatory bowel disease inhaled corticosteroid interstitial lung disease nonasthmatic eosinophilic bronchitis non-small cell lung cancer speech-language pathologist tuberculosis upper airway cough syndrome upper respiratory infection voluntary cough videofluoroscopic swallow evaluation Recognition of the importance of cough in clinical medicine was the impetus for the original evidence-based consensus panel report on “Managing Cough as a Defense Mechanism and as a Symptom,” published in 1998,1Irwin RS Boulet LP Cloutier MM et al.Managing cough as a defense mechanism and as a symptom: a consensus panel report of the American College of Chest Physicians.Chest. 1998; 114: 133S-181SAbstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (567) Google Scholar and this updated revision. Compared to the original cough consensus statement, this revision (1) more narrowly focuses the guidelines on the diagnosis and treatment of cough, the symptom, in adult and pediatric populations, and minimizes the discussion of cough as a defense mechanism; (2) improves on the rigor of the evidence-based review and describes the methodology in a separate section; (3) updates and expands, when appropriate, all previous sections; and (4) adds new sections with topics that were not previously covered. These new sections include nonasthmatic eosinophilic bronchitis (NAEB); acute bronchitis; nonbronchiectatic suppurative airway diseases; cough due to aspiration secondary to oral/pharyngeal dysphagia; environmental/occupational causes of cough; tuberculosis (TB) and other infections; cough in the dialysis patient; uncommon causes of cough; unexplained cough, previously referred to as idiopathic cough; an empiric integrative approach to the management of cough; assessing cough severity and efficacy of therapy in clinical research; potential future therapies; and future directions for research.To mitigate future diagnostic confusion, two new diagnostic terms have been introduced to replace two older terms that may represent misnomers. The committee unanimously recommends that the term upper airway cough syndrome (UACS) be used in preference to postnasal drip syndrome (PNDS) when discussing cough that is associated with upper airway conditions because it is unclear whether the mechanism of cough is postnasal drip, direct irritation, or inflammation of the cough receptors in the upper airway. The committee also recommends using the term unexplained cough rather than idiopathic cough because it is likely that more than one unknown cause of chronic cough will be discovered. The term idiopathic implies that one is dealing with only one disease.For managing adult patients with cough, the committee recommends an empiric, integrative diagnostic approach, which is presented in the section entitled “An Empiric Integrative Approach to the Management of Cough”.3Pratter MR Brightling CE Boulet LP et al.An empiric integrative approach to the management of cough: ACCP evidence-based clinical practice guidelines.Chest. 2006; 129: 222S-231SAbstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (141) Google Scholar Guidelines for managing acute, subacute, and chronic cough are presented in algorithmic form (Figure 1, Figure 2, Figure 3). Guidelines with algorithms for evaluating chronic cough in pediatric patients < 15 years of age are presented in the section entitled “Guidelines for Evaluating Chronic Cough in Pediatrics”2Rudolph C Mazur L Liptak G et al.Guidelines for evaluation and treatment of gastroesophageal reflux in infants and children: recommendations of the North American Society for Pediatric Gastroenterology and Nutrition.J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2001; 32: S1-S31Crossref PubMed Scopus (598) Google Scholar, 4Chang AB Glomb WB Guidelines for evaluating cough in pediatrics: ACCP evidence-based clinical practice guidelines.Chest. 2006; 129: 260S-283SAbstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (276) Google Scholar [Figure 4, Figure 5]. For a full discussion on how to use the algorithms, please refer to these sections.Figure 2Subacute cough algorithm for the management of patients ≥ 15 years of age with cough lasting 3 to 8 weeks. For diagnosis and treatment recommendations refer to the section indicated in the algorithm. AECB = acute exacerbation of chronic bronchitis. See the legend of Figure 1 for abbreviations not used in the text. See Figure 1 for references to Sections.View Large Image Figure ViewerDownload Hi-res image Download (PPT)Figure 3Chronic cough algorithm for the management of patients ≥ 15 years of age with cough lasting > 8 weeks. ACE-I = ACE inhibitor; BD = bronchodilator; LTRA = leukotriene receptor antagonist; PPI = proton pump inhibitor. See the legend of Figure 1 for abbreviations not used in the text.View Large Image Figure ViewerDownload Hi-res image Download (PPT)Figure 4Approach to a child < 15 years of age with chronic cough. There are limitations of the algorithm, which should be read with the accompanying text. Spirometry can usually be reliably performed in children > 6 years of age and in some children > 3 years of age if trained pediatric personnel are present. CXR = chest radiograph.2Rudolph C Mazur L Liptak G et al.Guidelines for evaluation and treatment of gastroesophageal reflux in infants and children: recommendations of the North American Society for Pediatric Gastroenterology and Nutrition.J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2001; 32: S1-S31Crossref PubMed Scopus (598) Google ScholarView Large Image Figure ViewerDownload Hi-res image Download (PPT)Figure 5Approach to a child ≤ 14 years of age with chronic specific cough (ie, cough associated with other features suggestive of an underlying pulmonary and/or systemic abnormality). Children > 14 years of age should be managed as outlined in adult guidelines but there is no good evidence where the age cutoff should be. TEF = tracheal esophageal fistula. See the legend of Figure 4 for abbreviation not used in the text.View Large Image Figure ViewerDownload Hi-res image Download (PPT)SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONSRecommendations for each section of these guidelines are listed under their respective section titles. For an in-depth discussion or clarification of each recommendation, readers are encouraged to read the specific section in question in its entirety.Methodology and Grading of the Evidence for the Diagnosis and Management of Cough5McCrory DC Lewis S Zelman Methodology and grading of the evidence for the diagnosis and management of cough: ACCP evidence-based clinical practice guidelines.Chest. 2006; 129: 28S-32SAbstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (10) Google Scholar•The recommendations were graded, by consensus by the panel, using the American College of Chest Physicians Health and Science Policy Grading System, which is based on the following two components: quality of evidence; and the net benefit of the diagnostic and therapeutic procedure.•The quality of evidence is rated according to the study design and strength of other methodologies used in the included studies.•The net benefit of the recommendations is based on the estimated benefit to the specific patient population described in each recommendation and not for an individual patient. Usually, the net benefit is a clinical benefit to the population of patients defined in the first phrase of the recommendation, but, in recommendations for future research or other nonclinical recommendations, it may be a societal benefit.•Both the quality of evidence and the net benefit components are listed after each recommendation; their interaction defines the strength of the recommendations.•The recommendations scale is as follows: A, strong; B, moderate; C, weak; D, negative; I, inconclusive (no recommendation possible); E/A, strong recommendation based on expert opinion only; E/B, moderate recommendation based on expert opinion only; E/C, weak recommendation based on expert opinion only; and E/D, negative recommendation based on expert opinion onlyAnatomy and Neurophysiology of the Cough Reflex6Canning BJ Anatomy and neurophysiology of the cough reflex: ACCP evidence-based clinical practice guidelines.Chest. 2006; 129: 33S-47SAbstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (120) Google Scholar•There is clear evidence that vagal afferent nerves regulate involuntary coughing.•Coughing, like swallowing, belching, urinating, and defecating, is unique because there is higher cortical control of this visceral reflex.•Cortical control can manifest as cough inhibition or voluntary cough. The implications of this are several-fold: because placebos can have a profound effect on coughing, treatment studies must be placebo-controlled. Because cough can be an affective behavior, psychological issues must be considered as a cause or effect of coughing.•There is a need to study the roles of consciousness and perception in coughing.Global Physiology and Pathophysiology of Cough7McCool FD Global physiology and pathophysiology of cough: ACCP evidence-based clinical practice guidelines.Chest. 2006; 129: 48S-53SAbstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (203) Google Scholar1.In patients with endotracheal tubes, tracheostomy need not be performed to improve cough effectiveness. Level of evidence, expert opinion; net benefit, substantial; grade of recommendation, E/A2.Individuals with neuromuscular weakness and no concomitant airway obstruction may benefit from mechanical aids to improve cough. Level of evidence, low; net benefit, intermediate; grade of recommendation, C3.In patients with ineffective cough, the clinician should be aware of and monitor for possible complications, such as pneumonia, atelectasis, and/or respiratory failure. Level of evidence, low; net benefit, substantial; grade of recommendation, BComplications of Cough8Irwin RS Complications of cough: ACCP evidence-based clinical practice guidelines.Chest. 2006; 129: 54S-58SAbstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (117) Google Scholar1.In patients complaining of cough, evaluate for a variety of complications associated with coughing (eg, cardiovascular, constitutional, GI, genitourinary, musculoskeletal, neurologic, ophthalmologic, psychosocial, and skin complications), which can lead to a decrease in a patient's health-related quality of life. Level of evidence, low; benefit, substantial; grade of recommendation, B2.Patients with cough should have a thorough diagnostic evaluation, according to the guidelines set forth in this document, to mitigate or prevent these complications. Level of evidence, low; net benefit, substantial; grade of recommendation, BOverview of Common Causes of Chronic Cough9Pratter MR Overview of common causes of chronic cough: ACCP evidence-based clinical practice guidelines.Chest. 2006; 129: 59S-62SAbstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (124) Google Scholar1.In patients with chronic cough and a normal chest roentgenogram finding who are nonsmokers and are not receiving therapy with an angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitor, the diagnostic approach should focus on the detection and treatment of UACS (formerly called PNDS), asthma, NAEB, or GERD, alone or in combination. This approach is most likely to result in a high rate of success in achieving cough resolution. Level of evidence, low; benefit, substantial; grade of recommendation, B2.In all patients with chronic cough, regardless of clinical signs or symptoms, because UACS (formerly called PNDS), asthma, and GERD each may present only as cough with no other associated clinical findings (ie, “silent PNDS,” “cough variant asthma,” and “silent GERD”), each of these diagnoses must be considered. Level of evidence, low; benefit, substantial; grade of recommendation, B3.In patients with chronic cough, neither the patient's description of his or her cough in terms of its character or timing, nor the presence or absence of sputum production, should be used to rule in or rule out a diagnosis or to determine the clinical approach. Level of evidence, low; benefit, substantial; grade of recommendation, BChronic Upper Airway Cough Syndrome Secondary to Rhinosinus Diseases (Previously Referred to as Postnasal Drip Syndrome)10Pratter MR Chronic upper airway cough syndrome secondary to rhinosinus diseases (previously referred to as postnasal drip syndrome): ACCP evidence-based clinical practice guidelines.Chest. 2006; 129: 63S-71SAbstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (189) Google Scholar1.In patients with chronic cough that is related to upper airway abnormalities, the committee considers the term UACS to be more accurate, and it should therefore be used instead of the term PNDS. Level of evidence, expert opinion; benefit, substantial; grade of recommendation, E/A2.In patients with chronic cough, the diagnosis of UACS-induced cough should be determined by considering a combination of criteria, including symptoms, physical examination findings, radiographic findings, and, ultimately, the response to specific therapy. Because it is a syndrome, no pathognomonic findings exist. Level of evidence, low; benefit, substantial; grade of recommendation, B3.In patients in whom the cause of the UACS-induced cough is apparent, specific therapy directed at this condition should be instituted. Level of evidence, low; benefit, substantial; grade of recommendation, B4.For patients with chronic cough, an empiric trial of therapy for UACS should be administered because the improvement or resolution of cough in response to specific treatment is the pivotal factor in confirming the diagnosis of UACS as a cause of cough. Level of evidence, low; benefit, substantial; grade of recommendation, B5.A patient suspected of having UACS-induced cough who does not respond to empiric antihistamine/decongestant (A/D) therapy with a first-generation antihistamine should next undergo sinus imaging. Although chronic sinusitis may cause a productive cough, it may also be clinically silent, in that the cough can be relatively or even completely nonproductive and none of the typical findings associated with acute sinusitis may be present. Level of evidence, low; benefit, substantial; grade of recommendation, B6.In patients for whom a specific etiology of chronic cough is not apparent, empiric therapy for UACS in the form of a first-generation A/D preparation should be prescribed before beginning an extensive diagnostic workup. Level of evidence, low; benefit, intermediate; grade of recommendation, CCough and the Common Cold11Pratter MR Cough and the common cold: ACCP evidence-based clinical practice guidelines.Chest. 2006; 129: 72S-74SAbstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (99) Google Scholar1.Patients with acute cough (as well as PND and throat clearing) associated with the common cold can be treated with a first-generation A/D preparation (brompheniramine and sustained-release pseudoephedrine). Naproxen can also be administered to help decrease cough in this setting. Level of evidence, fair; benefit, substantial; grade of recommendation, A2.In patients with the common cold, newer generation nonsedating antihistamines are ineffective for reducing cough and should not be used. Level of evidence, fair; benefit, none; grade of recommendation, D3.In patients with cough and acute URTI, because symptoms, signs, and even sinus-imaging abnormalities may be indistinguishable from acute bacterial sinusitis, the diagnosis of bacterial sinusitis should not be made during the first week of symptoms. (Clinical judgment is required to decide whether to institute antibiotic therapy.) Level of evidence, fair; benefit, none; grade of recommendation, DChronic Cough Due to Asthma12Dicpinigaitis PV Chronic cough due to asthma: ACCP evidence-based clinical practice guidelines.Chest. 2006; 129: 75S-79SAbstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (146) Google Scholar1.In a patient with chronic cough, asthma should always be considered as a potential etiology because asthma is a common condition with which cough is commonly associated. Quality of evidence, fair; net benefit, substantial; grade of recommendation, A2.In a patient suspected of having CVA but in whom physical examination and spirometry findings are nondiagnostic, MIC testing should be performed to confirm the presence of asthma. However, a diagnosis of CVA as the cause of cough is established only after the resolution of cough with specific antiasthmatic therapy. If MIC testing cannot be performed, empiric therapy should be administered; however, a response to steroid therapy will not exclude NAEB as an etiology of the patient's cough. Quality of evidence, good; net benefit, substantial; grade of recommendation, A3.Patients with cough due to asthma should initially be treated with a standard antiasthmatic regimen of inhaled bronchodilators and inhaled corticosteroids (ICSs). Quality of evidence, fair; net benefit, substantial; grade of recommendation, A4.In patients whose cough is refractory to treatment with ICSs, an assessment of airway inflammation should be performed whenever available and feasible. The demonstration of persistent airway eosinophilia during such an assessment will identify those patients who may benefit from more aggressive antiinflammatory therapy. Quality of evidence, low; net benefit, substantial; grade of recommendation, B5a.For patients with asthmatic cough that is refractory to treatment with ICSs and bronchodilators, in whom poor compliance or another contributing condition has been excluded, a leukotriene receptor antagonist may be added to the therapeutic regimen before the escalation of therapy to systemic corticosteroids. Quality of evidence, fair; net benefit, intermediate; grade of recommendation, B5b.Patients with severe and/or refractory cough due to asthma should receive a short course (1 to 2 weeks) of systemic (oral) corticosteroids followed by ICSs. Quality of evidence, low; net benefit,: substantial; grade of recommendation, BChronic Cough Due to Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease13Irwin RS Chronic cough due to gastroesophageal reflux disease: ACCP evidence-based clinical practice guidelines.Chest. 2006; 129: 80S-94SAbstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (244) Google Scholar1.In patients with chronic cough due to gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD), the term acid reflux disease, unless it can be definitively shown to apply, should be replaced by the more general term reflux disease so as not to mislead the clinicians into thinking that all patients with cough due to GERD should improve with acid-suppression therapy. Level of evidence, expert opinion; benefit, substantial; grade of recommendation, E/A2.In patients with chronic cough who also complain of typical and frequent GI complaints such as daily heartburn and regurgitation, especially when the findings of chest-imaging studies and/or clinical syndrome are consistent with an aspiration syndrome, the diagnostic evaluation should always include GERD as a possible cause. Level of evidence, low; benefit, substantial; grade of recommendation, B3.Patients with chronic cough who have GI symptoms that are consistent with GERD or who fit the clinical profile described in Table 1 in Irwin13Irwin RS Chronic cough due to gastroesophageal reflux disease: ACCP evidence-based clinical practice guidelines.Chest. 2006; 129: 80S-94SAbstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (244) Google Scholar, should be considered to have a high likelihood of having GERD and should be prescribed antireflux treatment even when they have no GI symptoms. Level of evidence, low; benefit, substantial; grade of recommendation, B4.In patients with chronic cough, it should not be assumed that GERD has been definitively ruled out as a cause of cough simply because there is a history of antireflux surgery. Level of evidence, low; benefit, substantial; grade of recommendation, B5.In patients with chronic cough, while tests that link GERD with cough suggest a potential cause-effect relationship, a definitive diagnosis of cough due to GERD requires that cough nearly or completely disappear with antireflux treatment. Level of evidence, low; benefit, substantial; grade of recommendation, B6.In patients with chronic cough being evaluated for GERD, the 24-h esophageal pH-monitoring test is the most sensitive and specific test; however, it is recommended that the test results be interpreted as normal only when conventional indices for acid reflux are within the normal range and no reflux-induced coughs appear during the monitoring study. Level of evidence, low; benefit, substantial; grade of recommendation, B7.In patients with cough who are undergoing 24-h monitoring, a low percentage of coughs associated with (or induced by) reflux does not exclude a diagnosis of cough due to GERD. Level of evidence, low; benefit, substantial; grade of recommendation, B8.In patients with cough due to GERD, the degree of abnormality noted in the esophageal pH-monitoring variables, such as the frequency and duration of reflux events, does not directly correlate with the severity of the patients' cough. Level of evidence, low; benefit, substantial; grade of recommendation, B9.In diagnosing nonacid GERD as the cause of cough, barium esophagography may be the only available test to reveal GER of potential pathologic significance in this setting (see the “Discussion” section regarding esophageal impedance monitoring). When this is the case, barium esophagography is the test of choice to reveal GER of potential pathologic significance. Level of evidence, low; benefit, substantial; grade of recommendation, B10.In patients with cough due to GERD, a normal esophagoscopy finding does not rule out GERD as the cause of cough. Level of evidence, low; benefit, substantial; grade of recommendation, B11.For patients fitting the clinical profile for cough due to GERD, it is recommended that treatment be initially started in lieu of testing. Level of evidence, low; benefit, substantial; grade of recommendation, B12.For patients fitting the clinical profile for cough due to GERD, the performance of 24-h esophageal pH monitoring is recommended on therapy when cough does not improve or resolve to assist in determining whether the therapy needs to be intensified or if medical therapy has failed. Level of evidence, low; benefit, substantial; grade of recommendation, B13.For patients with chronic cough, the following tests are not routinely recommended to link cough with GERD: (a) assessing for lipid-laden macrophages in BAL fluid and induced sputum, because this test has not been studied in patients with chronic cough and because a positive test result is not specific for aspiration; (b) exhaled nitric oxide measurements, because they do not appear to be helpful in diagnosing cough due to GERD; (c) a Bernstein test, because a negative Bernstein test result cannot be used to exclude the diagnosis of cough due to GERD; and (d) inhaled tussigenic challenges with capsaicin, because they are not specific for coughs due to GERD and because the test result can be positive in patients with GERD without cough. Level of evidence, low; benefit, conflicting; grade of recommendation, I14.In patients who meet the clinical profile predicting that silent GERD is the likely cause of chronic cough or in patients with chronic cough who also have prominent upper GI symptoms consistent with GERD, an empiric trial of medical antireflux therapy is recommended. Level of evidence, low; benefit, substantial; grade of recommendation, B15.For treating the majority of patients with chronic cough due to GERD, the following medical therapies are recommended: (a) dietary and lifestyle modifications; (b) acid suppression therapy; and (c) the addition of prokinetic therapy either initially or if there is no response to the first two therapies. The response to these therapies should be assessed within 1 to 3 months. Level of evidence, expert opinion; benefit, substantial; grade of recommendation, E/A16.In patients in which this empiric treatment fails, it cannot be assumed that GERD has been ruled out as a cause of chronic cough; rather, the objective investigation for GERD is then recommended because the empiric therapy may not have been intensive enough or medical therapy may have failed. Level of evidence, expert opinion; benefit, substantial; grade of recommendation, E/A17.In some patients, cough due to GERD will favorably respond to acid suppression therapy alone; proton pump inhibition may be effective when H2-antagonism has been ineffective; prokinetic therapy and diet, when added to proton pump inhibition, may be effective when proton pump inhibition alone has been ineffective. Level of evidence, low; benefit, substantial; grade of recommendation, B18.Patients requiring an intensive medical treatment regimen should be treated with the following: (a) antireflux diet that includes no > 45 g of fat in 24 h and no coffee, tea, soda, chocolate, mints, citrus products, including tomatoes, or alcohol, no smoking, and limiting vigorous exercise that will increase intraabdominal pressure; (b) acid suppression with a proton pump inhibitor; (c) prokinetic therapy; and (d) efforts to mitigate the influences of comorbid diseases such as obstructive sleep apnea or therapy for comorbid conditions (eg, nitrates, progesterone, and calcium channel blockers) whenever possible. Level of evidence, expert opinion; benefit, substantial; grade of recommendation, E/A19.In patients with chronic cough due to GERD that has failed to improve with the most maximal medical therapy, which includes an intensive antireflux diet and lifestyle modification, maximum acid suppression, and prokinetic therapy, and the rest of the spectrum of treatment options in Table 3 in Irwin,13Irwin RS Chronic cough due to gastroesophageal reflux disease: ACCP evidence-based clinical practice guidelines.Chest. 2006; 129: 80S-94SAbstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (244) Google Scholar cough may only improve or be eliminated with antireflux surgery. Level of evidence, low; benefit, substantial; grade of recommendation, B20.In patients who meet the following criteria, antireflux surgery is the recommended treatment: (a) findings of a 24-h esophageal pH-monitoring study before treatment is positive, as defined above; (b) patients fit the clinical profile suggesting that GERD is the likely cause of their cough (Table 1 in Irwin13Irwin RS Chronic cough due to gastroesophageal reflux disease: ACCP evidence-based clinical practice guidelines.Chest. 2006; 129: 80S-94SAbstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (244) Google Scholar); (c) cough has not improved after a minimum of 3 months of intensive therapy (Table 3 in Irwin13Irwin RS Chronic cough due to gastroesophageal reflux disease: ACCP evidence-based clinical practice guidelines.Chest. 2006; 129: 80S-94SAbstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (244) Google Scholar), and serial esophageal pH-monitoring studies or other objective studies (eg, barium esophagography, esophagoscopy, and gastric-emptying study with solids) performed while the patient receives therapy show that intensive medical therapy has failed to control the reflux disease and that GERD is still the likely cause of cough; and (d) patients express the opinion that their persisting cough does not allow them a satisfactory quality of life. Level of evidence, expert opinion; benefit, substantial; grade of recommendation, E/AChronic Cough Due to Acute Bronchitis14Braman SS Chronic cough due to acute bronchitis: ACCP evidence-based clinical practice guidelines.Chest. 2006; 129: 95S-103SAbstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (101) Google Scholar1.In a patient with an acute respiratory infection manifested predominantly by cough, with or without sputum production, lasting no more than 3 weeks, a diagnosis of acute bronchitis should not be made unless there is no clinical or radiographic evidence of pneumonia, and the common cold, acute asthma, or an exacerbation of COPD have been ruled out as the cause of cough. Quality of evidence, expert opinion; benefit, substantial; grade of recommendation, E/A2.In patients with the presumed diagnosis of acute bronchitis, viral cultures, serologic assays, and sputum analyses should not be routinely performed because the responsible organism is rarely identified in clinical practice. Quality of evidence, low; benefit, intermediate; grade of recommendation, C3.In patients with acute cough and sputum production suggestive of acute bronchitis, the absence of the following findings reduces the likelihood of pneumonia sufficiently to eliminate the need for a chest radiograph: (1) heart rate > 100 beats/min; (2) respiratory rate > 24 breaths/min; (3) oral body temperature of > 38°C; and (4) chest examination findings of focal consolidation, egophony, or fremitus. Quality of evidence, low; benefit, substantial; grade of recommendation, B4a.For patients with the putative diagnos