Global inhibition of protein synthesis is a common response to stress conditions. We have analyzed the regulation of protein synthesis in response to oxidative stress induced by exposure to H2O2 in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Our data show that H2O2 causes an inhibition of translation initiation dependent on the Gcn2 protein kinase, which phosphorylates the α-subunit of eukaryotic initiation factor-2. Additionally, our data indicate that translation is regulated in a Gcn2-independent manner because protein synthesis was still inhibited in response to H2O2 in a gcn2 mutant. Polysome analysis indicated that H2O2 causes a slower rate of ribosomal runoff, consistent with an inhibitory effect on translation elongation or termination. Furthermore, analysis of ribosomal transit times indicated that oxidative stress increases the average mRNA transit time, confirming a post-initiation inhibition of translation. Using microarray analysis of polysome- and monosome-associated mRNA pools, we demonstrate that certain mRNAs, including mRNAs encoding stress protective molecules, increase in association with ribosomes following H2O2 stress. For some candidate mRNAs, we show that a low concentration of H2O2 results in increased protein production. In contrast, a high concentration of H2O2 promotes polyribosome association but does not necessarily lead to increased protein production. We suggest that these mRNAs may represent an mRNA store that could become rapidly activated following relief of the stress condition. In summary, oxidative stress elicits complex translational reprogramming that is fundamental for adaptation to the stress. Global inhibition of protein synthesis is a common response to stress conditions. We have analyzed the regulation of protein synthesis in response to oxidative stress induced by exposure to H2O2 in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Our data show that H2O2 causes an inhibition of translation initiation dependent on the Gcn2 protein kinase, which phosphorylates the α-subunit of eukaryotic initiation factor-2. Additionally, our data indicate that translation is regulated in a Gcn2-independent manner because protein synthesis was still inhibited in response to H2O2 in a gcn2 mutant. Polysome analysis indicated that H2O2 causes a slower rate of ribosomal runoff, consistent with an inhibitory effect on translation elongation or termination. Furthermore, analysis of ribosomal transit times indicated that oxidative stress increases the average mRNA transit time, confirming a post-initiation inhibition of translation. Using microarray analysis of polysome- and monosome-associated mRNA pools, we demonstrate that certain mRNAs, including mRNAs encoding stress protective molecules, increase in association with ribosomes following H2O2 stress. For some candidate mRNAs, we show that a low concentration of H2O2 results in increased protein production. In contrast, a high concentration of H2O2 promotes polyribosome association but does not necessarily lead to increased protein production. We suggest that these mRNAs may represent an mRNA store that could become rapidly activated following relief of the stress condition. In summary, oxidative stress elicits complex translational reprogramming that is fundamental for adaptation to the stress. Cells must be able to maintain their intracellular homeostasis in the face of changing conditions. Typically, they respond by invoking complex regulatory mechanisms, including global inhibition of translation (1Clemens M.J. Prog. Mol. Subcell. Biol. 2001; 27: 57-89Crossref PubMed Scopus (171) Google Scholar, 2Proud C.G. Semin. Cell Dev. Biol. 2005; 16: 3-12Crossref PubMed Scopus (305) Google Scholar). This reduction in protein synthesis may prevent continued gene expression during potentially error-prone conditions as well as allow for the turnover of existing mRNAs and proteins, whilst gene expression is reprogrammed to deal with the stress. Four mammalian protein kinases that inhibit translation initiation by phosphorylating eukaryotic initiation factor-2 (eIF2) 2The abbreviations used are: eIF2, eukaryotic initiation factor-2; ER, endoplasmic reticulum; ROS, reactive oxygen species; TAP, tandem affinity purification; RT, reverse transcription. have been identified. GCN2 (the amino acid control kinase), PKR (the double-stranded protein kinase activated by RNA), HRI (the heme-regulated inhibitor), and PERK/PEK (the PKR-like endoplasmic reticulum eIF2α kinase) are regulated independently in response to various different cellular stresses (2Proud C.G. Semin. Cell Dev. Biol. 2005; 16: 3-12Crossref PubMed Scopus (305) Google Scholar, 3Dever T.E. Cell. 2002; 108: 545-556Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (620) Google Scholar). For example, PERK has been found in all multicellular eukaryotes and is a component of the unfolded protein response. Consistent with its central role in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress response, cells lacking PERK fail to phosphorylate eIF2α and do not down-regulate protein synthesis during ER stress conditions (4Bertolotti A. Zhang Y. Hendershot L.M. Harding H.P. Ron D. Nat. Cell Biol. 2000; 2: 326-332Crossref PubMed Scopus (2133) Google Scholar, 5Kaufman R.J. Genes Dev. 1999; 13: 1211-1233Crossref PubMed Scopus (1944) Google Scholar). Attenuating protein synthesis may act to reduce the burden of newly synthesized ER client proteins on the ER folding machinery. Additionally, eIF2 phosphorylation induces translation of specific mRNAs, such as that encoding the metazoan activating transcription factor-4 (6Vattem K.M. Wek R.C. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 2004; 101: 11269-11274Crossref PubMed Scopus (1148) Google Scholar, 7Lu P.D. Harding H.P. Ron D. J. Cell Biol. 2004; 11: 27-33Crossref Scopus (667) Google Scholar). Activating transcription factor-4 mediates the integrated stress response, the targets of which include genes encoding proteins involved in amino acid metabolism and resistance to oxidative stress, ultimately protecting against the deleterious consequences of ER oxidation (8Harding H.P. Zhang Y. Zeng H. Novoa I. Lu P.D. Calfon M. Sadri N. Yun C. Popko B. Paules R. Stojdl D.F. Bell J.C. Hettmann T. Leiden J.M. Ron D. Mol. Cell. 2003; 11: 619-633Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (2410) Google Scholar). In yeast, Gcn2 is the sole eIF2 kinase and phosphorylates eIF2α in response to nutrient starvation and sodium or rapamycin exposure. eIF2 is a guanine nucleotide-binding factor and, in the GTP-bound form, interacts with the initiator methionyl-tRNA (Met-tRNAiMet) to form a ternary complex (eIF2·GTP·Met-tRNAiMet) that is competent for translation initiation. Following each round of initiation, eIF2 is released from the ribosome as a binary complex with GDP. GDP is replaced by GTP in a guanine nucleotide exchange reaction promoted by eIF2B. Phosphorylation of eIF2α by Gcn2 converts eIF2 from a substrate to an inhibitor of the guanine nucleotide exchange factor eIF2B (9Pavitt G.D. Ramaiah K.V. Kimball S.R. Hinnebusch A.G. Genes Dev. 1998; 12: 514-526Crossref PubMed Scopus (213) Google Scholar). The resulting decrease in eIF2B activity leads to reduced ternary complex levels. Paradoxically, translation of the GCN4 mRNA is activated in response to low ternary complex levels in a mechanism involving short upstream open reading frames (10Hinnebusch A.G. Annu. Rev. Microbiol. 2005; 59: 407-450Crossref PubMed Scopus (910) Google Scholar). Gcn4 is a transcription factor that activates gene expression of many targets, including amino acid biosynthetic genes (11Natarajan K. Meyer M.R. Jackson B.M. Slade D. Roberts C. Hinnebusch A.G. Marton M.J. Mol. Cell. Biol. 2001; 21: 4347-4368Crossref PubMed Scopus (569) Google Scholar). Thus, analogous to the mammalian integrated stress response, activation of Gcn4 serves to overcome the imposed starvation, which initially led to the translational control. More recently, we used microarray analysis combined with polysome analysis to demonstrate that lowering ternary complex levels results in widespread translational reprogramming, identifying a fundamental role for translational control in the adaptation to nutrient limitation (12Smirnova J.B. Selley J.N. Sanchez-Cabo F. Carroll K. Eddy A.A. McCarthy J.E. Hubbard S.J. Pavitt G.D. Grant C.M. Ashe M.P. Mol. Cell. Biol. 2005; 25: 9340-9349Crossref PubMed Scopus (82) Google Scholar). All aerobic organisms are exposed to reactive oxygen species (ROS), such as H2O2, the superoxide anion, and the hydroxyl radical, during the course of normal aerobic metabolism or following exposure to radical-generating compounds. These ROS cause wide-ranging damage to macromolecules, eventually leading to cell death (13Gutteridge J.M.C. Free Radic. Res. Commun. 1993; 19: 141-158Crossref PubMed Scopus (557) Google Scholar, 14Halliwell B. Gutteridge J.M.C. Free Radicals in Biology and Medicine, 2nd Ed. Oxford University Press, Oxford1989Google Scholar). To protect against oxidant damage, cells contain effective defense mechanisms, including antioxidant enzymes and free radical scavengers (15Temple M.D. Perrone G.G. Dawes I.W. Trends Cell Biol. 2005; 15: 319-326Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (314) Google Scholar). Yeast cells can adapt to oxidative stress by altering global transcription, including genes encoding antioxidants and other metabolic enzymes (16Gasch A.P. Spellman P.T. Kao C.M. Carmel-Harel O. Eisen M.B. Storz G. Botstein D. Brown P.O. Mol. Biol. Cell. 2000; 11: 4241-4257Crossref PubMed Scopus (3763) Google Scholar, 17Causton H.C. Ren B. Koh S.S. Harbison C.T. Kanin E.J. ennings E.G. Lee T.I. True H.L. Lander E.S. Young R.A. Mol. Biol. Cell. 2001; 12: 323-337Crossref PubMed Scopus (1077) Google Scholar). However, we have shown that oxidative stress caused by exposure to H2O2 results in a rapid and reversible inhibition of protein synthesis (18Shenton D. Grant C.M. Biochem. J. 2003; 374: 513-519Crossref PubMed Scopus (267) Google Scholar). Thus, it is unclear how changes in the gene expression program are translated into the cellular proteome. In this study, we have analyzed the regulation of protein synthesis in response to oxidative stress induced by exposure to H2O2. Our data show that H2O2 causes a dose-dependent inhibition of protein synthesis mediated in part by Gcn2-dependent phosphorylation of eIF2α. In addition, we provide evidence that protein synthesis is repressed by a Gcn2-independent inhibition of ribosomal transit. We used microarray analysis to demonstrate that certain mRNAs are translationally maintained following oxidative stress, indicating that translational control is a key component of the cellular response to oxidative stress. Yeast Strains and Growth Conditions—The Saccharomyces cerevisiae strains used in this study are isogenic derivatives of CY4 (MATa ura3-52 leu2-3 leu2-112 trp1-1 ade2-1 his3-11 can1-100) (19Grant C.M. MacIver F.H. Dawes I.W. Curr. Genet. 1996; 29: 511-515Crossref PubMed Scopus (274) Google Scholar). Tandem affinity purification (TAP)-tagged strains (MATa his3Δ1 leu2Δ0 met15Δ0 ura3Δ0) were purchased from Open Biosystems. Strains were converted to methionine prototrophs by transforming with a PCR-generated MET15 gene to facilitate radiolabeling with l-[35S]cysteine/methionine. Strains were grown in rich YEPD medium (1% (w/v) yeast extract, 2% (w/v) Bacto-peptone, and 2% (w/v) glucose) or minimal synthetic dextrose medium (0.17% (w/v) yeast nitrogen base without amino acids, 5% (w/v) ammonium sulfate, and 2% (w/v) glucose) supplemented with appropriate amino acids and bases (20Sherman F. Fink G.R. Lawrence C.W. Methods in Yeast Genetics. Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor, NY1974Google Scholar) at 30 °C and 180 rpm. Media were solidified by the addition of 2% (w/v) agar. Assays of GCN4-lacZ Reporter Expression—Standard methods for measuring the β-galactosidase activity for strains bearing GCN4-lacZ fusions were used (21Lucchini G. Hinnebusch A.G. Chen C. Fink G.R. Mol. Cell. Biol. 1984; 4: 1326-1333Crossref PubMed Scopus (99) Google Scholar). β-Galactosidase levels are expressed as nanomoles of o-nitrophenol β-d-galactopyranoside hydrolyzed per min/μg of total protein. Western Blot Analysis—Protein extracts were electrophoresed under reducing conditions on SDS-polyacrylamide minigels and electroblotted onto polyvinylidene difluoride membrane (Amersham Biosciences). Blots were probed using anti-eIF2α and anti-phospho-eIF2α antibodies as described previously (22Holmes L.E. Campbell S.G. De Long S.K. Sachs A.B. Ashe M.P. Mol. Cell. Biol. 2004; 24: 2998-3010Crossref PubMed Scopus (71) Google Scholar). TAP-tagged proteins were detected by Western blot analysis using peroxidase·anti-peroxidase complex (Sigma). Analysis of Protein Synthesis—The rate of protein synthesis was measured in exponential phase cells treated with H2O2 for 15 min and pulse-labeled for the last 5 min with 85 μm l-[35S]cysteine/methionine (18Shenton D. Grant C.M. Biochem. J. 2003; 374: 513-519Crossref PubMed Scopus (267) Google Scholar). TAP-tagged proteins were immunoprecipitated using IgG-Sepharose beads as described previously (23Puig O. Caspary F. Rigaut G. Rutz B. Bouveret E. Bragado-Nilsson E. Wilm M. Séraphin B. Methods. 2001; 24: 218-229Crossref PubMed Scopus (1428) Google Scholar). For the analysis of ribosome distribution on sucrose density gradients, yeast cultures were grown to exponential phase and treated with H2O2 as appropriate. Extracts were prepared and analyzed as described previously (24Ashe M.P. De Long S.K. Sachs A.B. Mol. Biol. Cell. 2000; 11: 833-848Crossref PubMed Scopus (314) Google Scholar). Monosome and polysome peaks were quantified using NIH Image J software. For transit time measurements, cells were pulsed-labeled with 85 μm l-[35S]cysteine/methionine, and aliquots were taken at regular intervals. Extracts were prepared in 200 μg/ml cycloheximide, and radioactive incorporation was measured in the total (completed and unfinished proteins) and completed protein fractions by liquid scintillation counting (25Nielsen P.J. McConkey E.H. J. Cell. Physiol. 1980; 104: 269-281Crossref PubMed Scopus (48) Google Scholar). Transit times were determined by comparing the incorporation of radioactive amino acids into total proteins and completed proteins released from ribosomes. Polysome Analysis and RNA Preparation—Cell extracts were prepared as described previously (12Smirnova J.B. Selley J.N. Sanchez-Cabo F. Carroll K. Eddy A.A. McCarthy J.E. Hubbard S.J. Pavitt G.D. Grant C.M. Ashe M.P. Mol. Cell. Biol. 2005; 25: 9340-9349Crossref PubMed Scopus (82) Google Scholar). Briefly, 60 A260 units were layered onto 35-ml 15-50% sucrose gradients and sedimented via centrifugation at 16,900 rpm for 13 h in a Beckman ultracentrifuge. Gradients were collected, and RNA quality was assessed using a 2100 bioanalyzer (Agilent Technologies, Palo Alto, CA). For comparison of RNA levels, fractions 4-8 and 11-15 from the gradient were pooled together for monosomal and polysomal RNA samples, respectively (see Fig. 4B). Thus, we focused on only the most strongly and poorly translated mRNAs, omitting some mRNAs that are located in the dimer region of the gradient. Total RNA samples were prepared according standard protocols (www.cogeme.man.ac.uk/Facilities/TRF%20Protocols.htm). RNA analysis by real-time reverse transcription (RT)-PCR was carried out using the MyiQ single-color real-time PCR detection system and iQ SYBR Green Supermix (Bio-Rad). Affymetrix GeneChip Expression Microarray Analysis—Microarray experiments were performed using the GeneChip yeast genome S98 oligonucleotide array (Affymetrix) according to the manufacturer's instructions (www.affymetrix.com/support/technical/manuals.affx). Approximately 10 μg of polysomal, monosomal, or total RNA was processed into biotinylated cRNA according to the Affymetrix protocols. 15 μg of biotinylated cRNA targets was fragmented and hybridized to the arrays at 45 °C for 16 h. The arrays were then processed using the Affymetrix EukGE-WS2 fluidics protocol (Version 4_450) and stained with R-phycoerythrin conjugated to streptavidin (Molecular Probes). Microarray images were acquired using GeneChip Scanner 2500 (Affymetrix) and Microarray Suite Version 5.0 software. For consistency with previous studies (12Smirnova J.B. Selley J.N. Sanchez-Cabo F. Carroll K. Eddy A.A. McCarthy J.E. Hubbard S.J. Pavitt G.D. Grant C.M. Ashe M.P. Mol. Cell. Biol. 2005; 25: 9340-9349Crossref PubMed Scopus (82) Google Scholar), we used robust multi-array analysis normalization to normalize the array data as well as further analysis using the Affymetrix library of procedures (Affy Version 1.5.8) in Bioconductor (Version 1.5, www.bioconductor.org) within R (Version 2.0.1, www.r-project.com). Robust multi-array analysis normalization was observed to produce more robust treatment of replicates as seen from standard MA plots used to compare the biological replicate samples (data not shown). Pooled polysomal and monosomal fractions generated very modest dispersal, demonstrating that the procedure we have developed is highly reproducible and fulfills all of the standard criteria generally applicable to microarray data (26Brazma A. Hingamp P. Quackenbush J. Sherlock G. Spellman P. Stoeckert C. Aach J. Ansorge W. Ball C.A. Causton H.C. Gaasterland T. Glenisson P. Holstege F.C. Kim I.F. Markowitz V. Matese J.C. Parkinson H. Robinson A. Sarkans U. Schulze-Kremer S. Stewart J. Taylor R. Vilo J. Vingron M. Nat. Genet. 2001; 29: 365-371Crossref PubMed Scopus (3337) Google Scholar). The data sets are publicly available at ArrayExpress (accession number E-MEXP-526). Hydrogen Peroxide Inhibits Protein Synthesis—Cells were treated with H2O2 for 15 min, and the rate of protein synthesis was measured during the final 5 min by the incorporation of [35S]cysteine/methionine. H2O2 caused a dose-dependent inhibition of protein synthesis with maximal inhibition observed at concentrations >1.0 mm (Fig. 1A). The inhibition of protein synthesis caused by H2O2 prompted us to analyze translational activity by examining the distribution of polysomes. Polysomes are ribosomes that are actively translating mRNAs. They can be separated on sucrose density gradients and quantified by measuring absorbance at 254 nm. Extracts prepared from the untreated strain exhibited normal profiles, including peaks corresponding to 40 S and 60 S ribosomal subunits, monosomes (80 S ribosomes), and polysomes (Fig. 1B). There was a dramatic shift of ribosomes from the polysomal region into the monosome or 80 S peak following treatment with H2O2. The accumulation of ribosomes in the 80 S peak of a sucrose gradient is indicative of decreased translation initiation. Polysome profiles from cells treated with cycloheximide during the peroxide treatment were analyzed to ensure that this effect did not arise because of peroxide activating global mRNA degradation in yeast. Incubation with cycloheximide was found to preserve polysomes during peroxide treatment, ruling out any effect on mRNA degradation (Fig. 1C). Oxidative Stress Induces Gcn2-dependent eIF2α Phosphorylation— One of the best characterized translational regulatory pathways in yeast involves phosphorylation at Ser51 of the eIF2α subunit by the Gcn2 kinase. Gcn2 is activated in response to amino acid starvation and ultimately brings about an inhibition of translation initiation (10Hinnebusch A.G. Annu. Rev. Microbiol. 2005; 59: 407-450Crossref PubMed Scopus (910) Google Scholar). To test whether the H2O2-dependent translation inhibition relies upon this pathway, we examined eIF2α phosphorylation by immunoblot analysis using anti-phosphorylated eIF2α antibody. Phosphorylation of eIF2α was observed in response to all concentrations and was maximal at 0.5 mm H2O2 (Fig. 2A), corresponding with maximal polysome decrease (Fig. 1B). Deletion of GCN2 abrogates phosphorylation of eIF2α and results in translational resistance to amino acid starvation (10Hinnebusch A.G. Annu. Rev. Microbiol. 2005; 59: 407-450Crossref PubMed Scopus (910) Google Scholar). Similarly, no inhibition of translation initiation was observed in a gcn2 mutant in response to oxidative stress because loss of GCN2 prevented the accumulation of monosomes in response to H2O2 (Fig. 2B). However, polysomes were maintained in the gcn2 mutant following H2O2 treatment compared with the wild-type strain, indicating an effect at the post-initiation phase of translation (see below). Inhibition of translation initiation was also abrogated in a strain containing a mutant form of eIF2α lacking Ser51 that is the target of phosphorylation (data not shown). The Gcn1·Gcn20 complex binds to Gcn2 and is thought to mediate the activation of Gcn2 by uncharged tRNA. The inhibition of translation initiation promoted by H2O2 stress was reduced by loss of GCN1 or GCN20, indicating that the activation of Gcn2 by H2O2 is liable to operate via a mechanism similar to amino acid starvation (Fig. 2B). Phosphorylation of eIF2α causes a global inhibition of protein synthesis as well as gene-specific translational activation of GCN4, which encodes a transcriptional activator protein (27Hinnebusch A.G. Trends Biochem. Sci. 1994; 19: 409-414Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (157) Google Scholar). GCN4 expression has been widely measured using a GCN4-lacZ reporter containing the GCN4 promoter and 5′-untranslated region driving expression of the lacZ gene. This reporter provides a convenient means to assess Gcn2-dependent inhibition of eIF2B activity mediated by eIF2α phosphorylation. When expression from this GCN4-lacZ reporter was measured following H2O2 treatment for 2 h, a modest 2-fold induction was seen in response to 0.2 mm H2O2 (Fig. 2C). This induction was dependent on Gcn2 because there was no induction in a gcn2 mutant. Surprisingly, GCN4 expression was inhibited at higher concentrations of H2O2 (Fig. 2C) despite the finding that maximal phosphorylation of eIF2α was at 0.5 mm H2O2 (Fig. 2A). To investigate the reason for this inhibition, we measured the rate of protein synthesis in a gcn2 mutant that could not inhibit translation initiation in response to H2O2 (Fig. 2B) and found that protein synthesis was still inhibited in the gcn2 mutant, albeit to a lesser extent (Fig. 2D). Taken together, these data indicate that H2O2 exposure causes a global inhibition of protein synthesis via Gcn2-dependent inhibition of translation initiation as well as via an additional mechanism that does not affect initiation. Oxidative Stress Inhibits Ribosomal Transit—Polysome analysis showed that H2O2 caused an inhibition of translation initiation (Fig. 1A). The extracts for these profiles were prepared in the presence of the translation elongation inhibitor cycloheximide to prevent continued elongation and ribosomal runoff. An inhibition of ribosomal transit (elongation plus termination of polypeptide chains) should be seen as a preservation of polysomes when extracts are prepared in the absence of cycloheximide. However, even a diminished rate of ribosomal runoff is extremely rapid and difficult to detect (28Tuite M.F. Stansfield I. Planta R.J. Brown A.J.P. Tuite M.F. Methods in Microbiology: Yeast Gene Analysis. 26. Academic Press, San Diego, CA1998: 351-373Google Scholar). We therefore took the approach of inhibiting translation initiation by shifting cells to medium lacking glucose following the treatment with H2O2. Glucose withdrawal from the growth medium results in a rapid (<1 min) inhibition of translation initiation (24Ashe M.P. De Long S.K. Sachs A.B. Mol. Biol. Cell. 2000; 11: 833-848Crossref PubMed Scopus (314) Google Scholar), and we reasoned that this would allow us to better detect any effect on ribosomal transit without the added complication of de novo translation initiation. Cells were either left untreated or treated with 2 mm H2O2 prior to the switch to medium lacking glucose. Glucose withdrawal resulted in a rapid inhibition of translation initiation as expected (Fig. 3A), and ribosomal runoff occurred in control experiments, resulting in a loss of ∼60% of the polysomes within 2 min (Fig. 3B). In contrast, polysomes were maintained following the H2O2 treatment, and ∼80% of the polysomes were maintained for 2 min. Ribsosomal transit times can be measured by comparing the incorporation of [35S]cysteine/methionine into total protein and completed polypeptide chains released from ribosomes (25Nielsen P.J. McConkey E.H. J. Cell. Physiol. 1980; 104: 269-281Crossref PubMed Scopus (48) Google Scholar). Using this technique, we determined that the average mRNA transit time in a gcn2 mutant is ∼86 s (Fig. 3C). H2O2 treatment (0.5 mm) increased the transit time by ∼50% to ∼131 s (Fig. 3D). Because a gcn2 mutant could not inhibit translation initiation (Fig. 2), these data confirm that there is an inhibition of translation elongation or termination in response to H2O2. Global Gene Expression Profiling Reveals That Certain mRNAs Are Translationally Maintained following Oxidative Stress—The use of expression profiling techniques such as microarray analyses can be used to analyze protein synthesis (29Beilharz T.H. Preiss T. Brief. Funct. Genomics Proteomics. 2004; 3: 103-111Crossref PubMed Scopus (48) Google Scholar). We used this technology to identify mRNAs that are translationally regulated in response to oxidative stress conditions. Cell extracts were prepared from yeast cells treated with 0.2 or 2 mm H2O2 for 15 min. These concentrations were chosen because they had a similar effect on translation initiation (Fig. 1B) but inhibited protein synthesis to different extents (Fig. 1A). The 15-min treatment with 0.2 mm H2O2 reduced cell viability by ∼20% compared with 65% loss of viability upon treatment with 2.0 mm H2O2. The 2.0 mm treatment also significantly slowed the growth of cells compared with the 0.2 mm treatment (Fig. 4A). Polysomal gradients from the selected stress conditions were separated into fractions (as described below), and in addition, total RNA samples (total stressed or total control) were prepared from stressed and control yeast cells to quantify standard transcript level changes. The resulting RNA samples were processed into cRNA and hybridized to Affymetrix microarrays. The analysis was performed in duplicate, and the data were processed and compared using the bioinformatics analyses described under “Experimental Procedures.” Expression profiling studies generally compare the ratio of mRNAs in polysomal (P) and monosomal (M) fractions between stressed (S) and control (C) yeast cells. For example, when translation is inhibited at the level of initiation, the association of mRNAs with the polysomal versus non-polysomal fraction can be used as a marker that represents the translational activity of specific mRNAs (29Beilharz T.H. Preiss T. Brief. Funct. Genomics Proteomics. 2004; 3: 103-111Crossref PubMed Scopus (48) Google Scholar). We recently defined the ratio PS/MS:PC/MC as the “translational state” of an individual mRNA and used it to identify mRNAs that are translationally maintained in response to the eIF2B-targeting stresses, amino acid starvation and fusel alcohol addition (12Smirnova J.B. Selley J.N. Sanchez-Cabo F. Carroll K. Eddy A.A. McCarthy J.E. Hubbard S.J. Pavitt G.D. Grant C.M. Ashe M.P. Mol. Cell. Biol. 2005; 25: 9340-9349Crossref PubMed Scopus (82) Google Scholar). However, when translation is inhibited by attenuating elongating ribosomes, as is the case for H2O2, increased polysome association cannot be used as a marker of the translational state of mRNAs. It was therefore necessary to develop a novel strategy to identify candidate mRNAs that are translationally regulated following H2O2 stress. Specifically, we compared the mRNAs in monosomal and polysomal fractions during stress conditions (PS+MS) with the mRNAs in monosomal and polysomal fractions during control conditions (PC+MC) (Fig. 4B). We reasoned that any mRNAs that can overcome the initiation block would have more ribosomes bound during stress conditions, resulting in an increase in PS+MS compared with PC+MC. These values were plotted on a scatter plot for stressed (y axis) and unstressed (x axis) cells (Fig. 5, A and B), where the intersection generates the change in translational activity for the mRNAs (PS+MS:PC+MC). This analysis facilitates the identification of those mRNAs that can overcome the block in translation initiation because they contain more ribosomes (both monosomal and polysomal) following the stress treatment. Within this population of mRNAs, we reasoned that it is possible to identify those mRNAs that are also somewhat resistant to the ribosomal transit block because they will contain more polysomes bound during stress conditions compared with control conditions, resulting in an increase in the PS:PC ratio (Fig. 5, A and B, red). Thus, we were able to identify those mRNAs that can overcome the inhibition of translation initiation (using the PS+MS: PC+MC ratio) as well as the mRNAs within this population that can overcome the inhibition of ribosomal transit to accumulate an increase in polyribosomes (using the PS:PC ratio). Interestingly, the two stress conditions gave very different translational profiles. Using a 2-fold cutoff value for the change in translational activity (PS+MS:PC+MC), 231 mRNAs (130 up and 101 down) and 230 mRNAs (98 up and 132 down) were significantly altered following treatment with 0.2 or 2.0 mm H2O2, respectively (Fig. 5, A and B). The majority of these mRNAs were also somewhat resistant to the ribosomal transit block because they contained more polysomes bound during stress conditions compared with control conditions (0.2 mm, 199 mRNAs; and 2.0 mm, 198 mRNAs) (Fig. 5, A and B). To assess whether a similar set of mRNAs are altered following each stress condition, we highlighted those mRNAs that chang