The von Hippel-Lindau tumor suppressor protein (pVHL) has emerged as a key factor in cellular responses to oxygen availability, being required for the oxygen-dependent proteolysis of α subunits of hypoxia inducible factor-1 (HIF). Mutations in VHL cause a hereditary cancer syndrome associated with dysregulated angiogenesis, and up-regulation of hypoxia inducible genes. Here we investigate the mechanisms underlying these processes and show that extracts from VHL-deficient renal carcinoma cells have a defect in HIF-α ubiquitylation activity which is complemented by exogenous pVHL. This defect was specific for HIF-α among a range of substrates tested. Furthermore, HIF-α subunits were the only pVHL-associated proteasomal substrates identified by comparison of metabolically labeled anti-pVHL immunoprecipitates from proteosomally inhibited cells and normal cells. Analysis of pVHL/HIF-α interactions defined short sequences of conserved residues within the internal transactivation domains of HIF-α molecules sufficient for recognition by pVHL. In contrast, while full-length pVHL and the p19 variant interact with HIF-α, the association was abrogated by further N-terminal and C-terminal truncations. The interaction was also disrupted by tumor-associated mutations in the β-domain of pVHL and loss of interaction was associated with defective HIF-α ubiquitylation and regulation, defining a mechanism by which these mutations generate a constitutively hypoxic pattern of gene expression promoting angiogenesis. The findings indicate that pVHL regulates HIF-α proteolysis by acting as the recognition component of a ubiquitin ligase complex, and support a model in which its β domain interacts with short recognition sequences in HIF-α subunits. The von Hippel-Lindau tumor suppressor protein (pVHL) has emerged as a key factor in cellular responses to oxygen availability, being required for the oxygen-dependent proteolysis of α subunits of hypoxia inducible factor-1 (HIF). Mutations in VHL cause a hereditary cancer syndrome associated with dysregulated angiogenesis, and up-regulation of hypoxia inducible genes. Here we investigate the mechanisms underlying these processes and show that extracts from VHL-deficient renal carcinoma cells have a defect in HIF-α ubiquitylation activity which is complemented by exogenous pVHL. This defect was specific for HIF-α among a range of substrates tested. Furthermore, HIF-α subunits were the only pVHL-associated proteasomal substrates identified by comparison of metabolically labeled anti-pVHL immunoprecipitates from proteosomally inhibited cells and normal cells. Analysis of pVHL/HIF-α interactions defined short sequences of conserved residues within the internal transactivation domains of HIF-α molecules sufficient for recognition by pVHL. In contrast, while full-length pVHL and the p19 variant interact with HIF-α, the association was abrogated by further N-terminal and C-terminal truncations. The interaction was also disrupted by tumor-associated mutations in the β-domain of pVHL and loss of interaction was associated with defective HIF-α ubiquitylation and regulation, defining a mechanism by which these mutations generate a constitutively hypoxic pattern of gene expression promoting angiogenesis. The findings indicate that pVHL regulates HIF-α proteolysis by acting as the recognition component of a ubiquitin ligase complex, and support a model in which its β domain interacts with short recognition sequences in HIF-α subunits. von Hippel-Lindau hypoxia inducible factor glucose transporter-1 Skp-1-Cdc53/Cullin-F-box AEBSF, 4-(2-aminoethyl)benzenesulfonyl fluoride polymerase chain reaction polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis iron regulatory protein-2 The von Hippel-Lindau (VHL)1 tumor suppressor gene contributes to the development of inherited and sporadic cancer in a pattern which conforms to the predictions of Knudson's “two hit” hypothesis. In the inherited syndrome, affected individuals bearing a germ-line mutation are strongly predisposed to highly angiogenic tumors of the retina and central nervous system, phaeochromocytoma, and renal cell carcinoma, whereas in sporadic renal cell carcinoma an important pathogenetic role is indicated by the high frequency of somatic mutation or inactivation of both VHL alleles (for review, see Ref. 1Kaelin W.G. Maher E.R. Trends Genet. 1998; 14: 423-426Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (201) Google Scholar). A function in oxygen-regulated gene expression was first suggested by the observation that the hypoxia inducible mRNAs encoding vascular endothelial growth factor and glucose transporter-1 (GLUT1) were up-regulated in VHL defective renal cell carcinoma cell lines (2Iliopoulos O. Levy A.P. Jiang C. Kaelin Jr., W.G. Goldberg M.A. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 1996; 93: 10595-10599Crossref PubMed Scopus (762) Google Scholar, 3Gnarra J.R. Zhou S. Merrill M.J. Wagner J.R. Krumm A. Papavassiliou E. Oldfield E.H. Klausner R.D. Linehan W.M. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 1996; 93: 10589-10594Crossref PubMed Scopus (470) Google Scholar). Important mechanistic insights into this phenomenon have recently been gained through studies of the action of pVHL on the transcriptional complex hypoxia inducible factor-1 (HIF-1) (4Maxwell P. Wiesener M. Chang G.-W. Clifford S. Vaux E. Cockman M. Wykoff C. Pugh C. Maher E. Ratcliffe P. Nature. 1999; 399: 271-275Crossref PubMed Scopus (4238) Google Scholar). HIF-1 is a heterodimer of basic helix-loop-helix PAS proteins, HIF-α and HIF-β (5Wang G.L. Jiang B.-H. Rue E.A. Semenza G.L. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 1995; 92: 5510-5514Crossref PubMed Scopus (5219) Google Scholar), which plays a critical role in a broad range of responses to hypoxia. These include the regulation of genes involved in angiogenesis, erythropoiesis, energy metabolism, iron metabolism, vasomotor control, inflammation, tissue matrix metabolism, and cell survival decisions (6Semenza G.L. Annu. Rev. Cell. Dev. Biol. 1999; 15: 551-578Crossref PubMed Scopus (1705) Google Scholar). A central mode of regulation of HIF-1 is through oxygen-regulated proteolysis of HIF-α subunits (HIF-1α and HIF-2α) involving the ubiquitin-proteasome pathway (7Salceda S. Caro J. J. Biol. Chem. 1997; 272: 22642-22647Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (1434) Google Scholar, 8Huang L.E. Gu J. Schau M. Bunn H.F. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 1998; 95: 7987-7992Crossref PubMed Scopus (1872) Google Scholar, 9Wiesener M.S. Turley H. Allen W.E. William C. Eckardt K.-U. Talks K.L. Wood S.M. Gatter K.C. Harris A.L. Pugh C.W. Ratcliffe P.J. Maxwell P.H. Blood. 1998; 92: 2260-2268Crossref PubMed Google Scholar). Studies in VHL defective renal cell carcinoma lines indicated that pVHL has a critical function in this process, since in VHL-defective cells HIF-α subunits were found to be constitutively stabilized, and re-expression of pVHL restored oxygen-dependent proteolysis. Immunoprecipitation and electrophoretic mobility supershift assays demonstrated that pVHL and HIF-α subunits were physically associated in a range of cell types, consistent with a general role for pVHL in the regulation of HIF-α proteolysis (4Maxwell P. Wiesener M. Chang G.-W. Clifford S. Vaux E. Cockman M. Wykoff C. Pugh C. Maher E. Ratcliffe P. Nature. 1999; 399: 271-275Crossref PubMed Scopus (4238) Google Scholar). However, the precise mechanism of HIF-α targeting by pVHL was not defined. In an independent line of investigation into pVHL function, protein association experiments defined a series of molecules that interact with pVHL, including elongins B and C and a member of the cullin family (CUL2) (10Duan D.R. Pause A. Burgess W.H. Aso T. Chen D.Y.T. Garrett K.P. Conaway R.C. Conaway J.W. Linehan W.M. Klausner R.D. Science. 1995; 269: 1402-1406Crossref PubMed Scopus (517) Google Scholar, 11Kibel A. Iliopoulos O. DeCaprio J.A. Kaelin Jr., W.G. Science. 1995; 269: 1444-1446Crossref PubMed Scopus (584) Google Scholar, 12Pause A. Lee S. Worrell R.A. Chen D.Y.T. Burgess W.H. Linehan W.M. Klausner R.D. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 1997; 94: 2156-2161Crossref PubMed Scopus (435) Google Scholar, 13Lonergan K.M. Iliopoulos O. Ohh M. Kamura T. Conaway R.C. Weliky Conaway J. Kaelin Jr., W.G. Mol. Cell. Biol. 1998; 18: 732-741Crossref PubMed Scopus (332) Google Scholar). The recognition that another cullin (Cdc53) played a key role in ubiquitin ligase complexes, which are necessary for proteolytic destruction at cell cycle transitions in yeast, suggested a role for pVHL in proteolysis (12Pause A. Lee S. Worrell R.A. Chen D.Y.T. Burgess W.H. Linehan W.M. Klausner R.D. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 1997; 94: 2156-2161Crossref PubMed Scopus (435) Google Scholar), and led to the proposal of a model based on homology with the SCF (Skp-1-Cdc53/Cullin-F-box) class of ubiquitin ligases (13Lonergan K.M. Iliopoulos O. Ohh M. Kamura T. Conaway R.C. Weliky Conaway J. Kaelin Jr., W.G. Mol. Cell. Biol. 1998; 18: 732-741Crossref PubMed Scopus (332) Google Scholar). Combinatorial arrangements of Skp-1, Cullin, and F-box proteins in SCF complexes provide different E3 target specificities, which are known or predicted to depend on association between substrate and an interaction domain on the F-box component (for review, see Ref. 14Patton E.E. Willems A.R. Tyers M. Trends Genet. 1998; 14: 236-243Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (446) Google Scholar). It was proposed that the VHL·elongin B/C·CUL2 complex might form a new class of ubiquitin ligases with pVHL playing a role analagous to the F-box protein, although the substrate(s) were undefined. This model has recently been supported by further similarities to SCF complexes noted in structural studies of the VHL·elongin B/C complex (15Stebbins C.E. Kaelin Jr., W.G. Pavletich N.P. Science. 1999; 284: 455-461Crossref PubMed Scopus (709) Google Scholar), and by recognition that another protein, Rbx1, is a common component of SCF and VHL·elongin B/C·CUL2 complexes (16Kamura T. Koepp D.M. Conrad M.N. Skowyra D. Moreland R.J. Iliopoulos O. Lane W.S. Kaelin Jr., W.G. Elledge S.J. Conaway R.C. Harper J.W. Conaway J.W. Science. 1999; 284: 657-661Crossref PubMed Scopus (681) Google Scholar). Taken together these observations suggested a specific hypothesis, that pVHL might act as the recognition component of a ubiquitin ligase complex that targets HIF-α subunits for ubiqutin-dependent proteolysis. If correct, this hypothesis has clear implications for understanding the role of pVHL in cellular oxygen sensing, and the mechanism of tumor suppressor function. Furthermore, it raises important questions concerning the range of pVHL substrates, the domains responsible for substrate capture, and the relationship to sites of oncogenic mutation. In this work we provide direct evidence in support of this hypothesis and address the associated questions. We demonstrate a critical role for pVHL in HIF-α ubiquitylation using in vitroubiquitylation assays. Using a display of metabolically labeled proteins which co-precipitated with pVHL in untreated and proteasomally blocked cells we show that the range of pVHL-associated proteolytic targets is limited and confined in these experiments to HIF-1α and HIF-2α. We analyze the domains involved in the association between HIF-α subunits and pVHL and define small subdomains within the internal transactivation domains that interact with pVHL. Furthermore, we show that the HIF-α interactions are disrupted by tumor-associated mutations in the β-domain of pVHL and that this is associated with defective HIF-α ubiquitylation in vitro, defective HIF-α regulation in vivo, and up-regulation of HIF target gene expression. RCC4 cells (4Maxwell P. Wiesener M. Chang G.-W. Clifford S. Vaux E. Cockman M. Wykoff C. Pugh C. Maher E. Ratcliffe P. Nature. 1999; 399: 271-275Crossref PubMed Scopus (4238) Google Scholar), originally a gift from C. H. M. C. Buys, and COS7 cells were maintained in Dulbecco's modified Eagle's medium with 10% fetal calf serum. RCC4/VHL is a subline re-expressing wild type pVHL following stable transfection with pcDNA3-VHL (4Maxwell P. Wiesener M. Chang G.-W. Clifford S. Vaux E. Cockman M. Wykoff C. Pugh C. Maher E. Ratcliffe P. Nature. 1999; 399: 271-275Crossref PubMed Scopus (4238) Google Scholar). Further series of stable transfectants were generated from RCC4 by transfection with wild type or mutant pVHL expression plasmids (see below), or empty vector, using Fugene6 (Roche Molecular Biochemicals), followed by selection in G418 (1 mg/ml). Clones were picked as individual colonies and maintained in G418. Expression of stably transfected VHL genes was checked by immunoblotting with anti-pVHL or anti-HA antibodies, and at least two independent clones were studied for each expression plasmid. Twenty-four hours before the experimental exposures, cells were subdivided onto 75-cm2 dishes in medium lacking G418. Parallel exposures to control and test conditions were generally for 4 h. Hypoxic incubation was in an atmosphere of 1% oxygen, 5% CO2, balance nitrogen in a Napco 7001 incubator (Jouan). For radioisotopic labeling, cells were first incubated for 1 h in serum-free medium lacking methionine and cystine, which was replaced with 4.5 ml of medium lacking methionine and cystine with 2% dialyzed fetal calf serum and 200 μCi/ml [35S]methionine/cysteine (Pro-mix, Amersham Pharmacia Biotech). Proteasomal inhibition was with 10 μm N-carbobenzoxyl-l-leucinyl-l-leucinyl-l-norvalinal and 100 μm calpain inhibitor 1 (Sigma). pcDNA3-VHL contains the VHL coding sequence in pcDNA3 (Invitrogen) (4Maxwell P. Wiesener M. Chang G.-W. Clifford S. Vaux E. Cockman M. Wykoff C. Pugh C. Maher E. Ratcliffe P. Nature. 1999; 399: 271-275Crossref PubMed Scopus (4238) Google Scholar). To make pcDNA3-VHL.HA, pcDNA3-VHL was PCR amplified with primers 5′-AGGGACACACGATGGGCTTCTG-3′ and 5′-GCAGAATTCGGCTTCACAAGCTAGCGTAATCTGGAACATCGTATGGGTATCCATCTCCCATCCGTTGATGTGGC-3′. The PCR product was cut at an internal BglII site and at theEcoRI site incorporated into the 3′-oligonucleotide, and used to replace a corresponding fragment in pcDNA3-VHL. pcDNA3-HA.VHL contained the sequence encoding pVHL with an HA epitope tag at the N terminus from pRC-HAVHL (a gift from W. Kaelin) inserted as a HindIII-XbaI restriction fragment into pcDNA3.1. pcDNA3(54–213).HA, pcDNA3-VHL(1–156).HA, and pcDNA3-VHL(1–187).HA were derived from pcDNA3-VHL.HA by removal of HindIII-HaeII,AccI-SmaI, andBglII-XbaI restriction fragments, respectively, followed by repair with DNA polymerase I Klenow fragment and religation. pcDNA3-HA.VHL(72–213) was derived by PCR amplification of pcDNA3-VHL with 5′-CGGGATCCCAGGTCATCTTCTGC-3′ and 5′-CGTCAACATTGAGAGATGG-3′. The PCR product was cut withBamHI and HpaI and ligated into pcDNA3-HA.VHL linearized at these sites. Missense mutations were generated in pcDNA3-VHL.HA by PCR-based site-directed mutagenesis (QuikChange, Stratagene). All PCRs were performed using Pfu DNA polymerase (Stratagene), and in all plasmids the VHLsequence and modifications were confirmed by sequence analysis. The plasmids encoding different series of GAL4 fusions with HIF-1α (pGal/α/ARNT-ta) and HIF-2α (pGal/EPAS), and glucocorticoid receptor fusions with HIF-1α (pGR/α) have been described previously (17Pugh C.W. O'Rourke J.F. Nagao M. Gleadle J.M. Ratcliffe P.J. J. Biol. Chem. 1997; 272: 11205-11214Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (455) Google Scholar, 18O'Rourke J.F. Tian Y.-M. Ratcliffe P.J. Pugh C.W. J. Biol. Chem. 1999; 274: 2060-2071Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (208) Google Scholar). Plasmids based on pcDNA3 expressing the entire open reading frames of human HIF-1α, human HIF-2α, human HIF-1β, rat IRP-2, and human c-Myc were made by standard recombinant maneuvers from plasmids kindly provided by G. Semenza, S. McKnight, O. Hankinson, E. Liebold, and G. Evan. Anti-HA antibody (12CA5) was from Roche Molecular Biochemicals, anti-pVHL antibody (IG32) was from Pharmingen, anti-HIF-1α antibody (clone 54) was from Transduction Laboratories, polyclonal anti-GLUT1 antibody (GT-11A) was from Alpha Diagnostic, and antibody to SV40 T antigen (PAb419) was a gift from E. Harlow. Anti-HIF-2α antibody (190b) was described previously (9Wiesener M.S. Turley H. Allen W.E. William C. Eckardt K.-U. Talks K.L. Wood S.M. Gatter K.C. Harris A.L. Pugh C.W. Ratcliffe P.J. Maxwell P.H. Blood. 1998; 92: 2260-2268Crossref PubMed Google Scholar). Cells were lysed in 100 μl of 100 mm NaCl, 0.5% Igepal CA630 (Sigma), 20 mm Tris-HCl (pH 7.6), 5 μm MgCl2, 1 mm sodium orthovanadate, 5 mm levamisole with aprotinin (1 μg/ml), “Complete” protease inhibitor (Roche Molecular Biochemicals), and 0.5 mm AEBSF for 1 h on ice with occasional mixing. Lysates were then centrifuged at 10,000 × g for 30 min at 4 °C. For immunoprecipitation, 200 μg of cell extract was precleared overnight at 4 °C with 10 μl of protein G-Sepharose beads pre-blocked with phosphate-buffered saline containing 20 mg/ml bovine serum albumin. 1 μg of antibody was then added and samples incubated at 4 °C for 2 h, followed by 2 h incubation with 10 μl of pre-blocked protein G-Sepharose beads on a rotator. Beads were washed five times in lysis buffer. Samples were resolved by SDS-PAGE, generally using discontinuous gels (8% acylamide upper portion, 13% lower portion) and were detected by fluorography (Amplify, Amersham Pharmacia Biotech). [35S]Methionine-labeled proteins were prepared by coupled transcription and translation reactions of expression plasmids in rabbit reticulocyte lysate (TNT, Promega). [35S]Methionine-labeled proteins were produced in reticulocyte lysates programmed with plasmids encoding HA epitope-tagged pVHL and HIF-α sequences. 1 μl of the indicated lysates was mixed in 100 μl of NETN buffer (150 mm NaCl, 0.5 mm EDTA, 20 mm Tris-HCl, pH 8.0, 0.5% v/v Igepal CA630). After 90 min at 4 °C, 0.25 μg of anti-HA antibody was added, followed after a further 1 h by 10 μl of pre-blocked protein G-Sepharose beads. After 30 min mixing on a rotator, beads were washed three times with NETN buffer. Proteins were analyzed by SDS-PAGE followed by fluorography. To prepare extracts cells were washed twice with cold hypotonic extraction buffer (20 mm Tris, pH 7.5, 5 mm KCl, 1.5 mmMgCl2, 1 mm dithiothreitol). After removal of buffer, cells were disrupted in a Dounce homogenizer. Following lysis, crude extract was centrifuged at 10,000 × g for 10 min at 4 °C to remove cell debris and nuclei, and stored in aliquots at −70 °C. Ubiquitylation assays were carried out at 30 °C in a total volume of 40 μl, containing 2 μl of programmed reticulocyte lysate, 27 μl of cell extract, 4 μl of 10 × ATP-regenerating system (20 mm Tris, pH 7.5, 10 mm ATP, 10 mm magnesium acetate, 300 mm creatine phosphate, 0.5 mg/ml creatine phosphokinase), 4 μl of 5 mg/ml ubiquitin (Sigma) or methylated ubiquitin (AFFINITI Research Products), 0.83 μl of 150 μm ubiquitin aldehyde (AFFINITI Research Products). For pVHL reconstitution experiments, [35S]methionine-labeled wild type or mutant pVHL (4 μl of programmed reticulocyte lysate) was preincubated with the reaction mixture at room temperature for 5 min prior to addition of substrate. Aliquots were removed at indicated times, mixed with SDS sample buffer, and analyzed by SDS-PAGE and autoradiography. Gels were quantitated using a Storm 840 PhosphorImager (Molecular Dynamics). To test the hypothesis that pVHL is a necessary component of a ubiquitin ligase complex recognizing HIF-α we developed an in vitro ubiquitylation assay for HIF-1α. In this assay, cell extracts (initially from COS7) were incubated with [35S]methionine-labeled HIF-1α prepared in vitro in reticulocyte lysates. Incubation with extract alone converted the HIF-1α substrate to a slower migrating form, an effect which was enhanced by an ATP-regenerating system (Fig.1) and was prevented by addition of the protein kinase inhibitor 2-aminopurine (data not shown). This indicated that these mobility shifts were most likely due to phosphorylation of HIF-1α as demonstrated recently by others (19Richard D.E. Berra E. Gothie E. Roux D. Pouysségur J. J. Biol. Chem. 1999; 274: 32631-32637Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (725) Google Scholar). Addition of ubiquitin resulted in the conversion of these species to a high molecular weight35S-labeled protein ladder of polyubiquitylated HIF-1α species. This assignment was confirmed by enhancement with addition of ubiquitin aldehyde, an isopeptidase inhibitor that prevents the breakdown of ubiquitin conjugates (Fig. 1). In contrast addition of methylated ubiquitin, which prevents the formation of multiubiquitin chains and acts as a chain terminator (20Hershko A. Ganoth D. Pehrson J. Palazzo R.E. Cohen L.H. J. Biol. Chem. 1991; 266: 16376-16379Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Google Scholar), did not support the generation of high molecular weight species, and when added in an equimolar ratio inhibited the formation of these species (Fig. 1). To determine the role of pVHL in HIF-1α ubiquitylation, we performed similar assays using extracts from RCC4 cells, and different stable transfectants re-expressing pVHL or pVHL.HA. Comparison of extracts from VHL defective, and pVHL re-expressing cells showed large differences in the rate of ubiquitylation of the HIF-1α substrate, particularly in the generation of the highest molecular weight conjugates, whereas the phosphorylation of HIF-1α occurred at a similar rate (Fig. 2 A). Similar effects were seen for HIF-2α (data not shown). Fig.2 B shows quantitative results of four independent comparisons of pairs of extracts from different VHL-defective and pVHL re-expressing RCC4 sublines. Although HIF-1α ubiquitylation was clearly more efficient in VHL-competent cells, a low level was apparent in the defective cells. We next tested the specificity of pVHL-dependent ubiquitylation using a range of other transcription factors. No ubiquitylation of HIF-1β could be demonstrated, irrespective of VHL status (Fig. 3, second panel), consistent with the inherent stability of this subunit (21Huang L.E. Arany Z. Livingston D.M. Bunn H.F. J. Biol. Chem. 1996; 271: 32253-32259Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (1038) Google Scholar). Myc is a highly unstable transcription factor, which is destroyed by ubiquitin-mediated proteolysis (22Salghetti S.E. Kim S.Y. Tansey W.P. EMBO J. 1999; 18: 717-726Crossref PubMed Scopus (389) Google Scholar). Myc substrate was ubiquitylated, but in contrast with HIF-1α, Myc ubiquitylation was similar between VHL defective and VHL competent extracts (Fig. 3, third panel). Iron regulatory protein-2 (IRP-2) which, like HIF-1α, is destroyed in an oxygen-dependent manner by the ubiquitin-proteasome pathway (23Iwai K. Drake S.K. Wehr N.B. Weissman A.M. LaVaute T. Minato N. Klausner R.D. Levine R.L. Rouault T.A. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 1998; 95: 4924-4928Crossref PubMed Scopus (267) Google Scholar) also showed no evidence of pVHL-dependent ubiquitylation (Fig. 3, fourth panel). Thus pVHL-dependent ubiquitylation was specific for HIF-α among a range of substrates tested in this assay. To provide a further unprejudiced insight into the range of proteolytic substrates targeted by pVHL we sought to display metabolically labeled substrates captured in vivo in pVHL immunoprecipitates. We performed a comparative display of anti-pVHL immunoprecipitates from normal cells and cells treated with proteasomal inhibitors, arguing that this should reveal differentially expressed species corresponding to HIF-α subunits, and should also provide a display of other pVHL target proteins which are degraded in a similar manner. For these experiments we used the VHL defective renal carcinoma line RCC4, and stably transfected derivatives expressing wild type pVHL (RCC4/VHL) or C-terminal HA epitope-tagged pVHL (RCC4/VHL.HA). Lysates were prepared from cells labeled with [35S]methionine/cysteine in the presence or absence of proteasomal inhibitors, at 21 or 1% oxygen. Immunoprecipitation from RCC4/VHL lysates was with anti-pVHL, whereas immunoprecipitation from RCC4/VHL.HA lysates was with anti-HA. Fig.4 A shows an autoradiograph of anti-pVHL immunoprecipitates. pVHL is seen as several species of approximate molecular mass 27, 24, and 19 kDa. This pattern is similar to that which we observe using this antibody for Western analysis of extracts from RCC4/VHL cells, and cells expressing a normal endogenous VHL gene (data not shown). The 19-kDa species has been shown to arise from translational initiation at an internal methionine at codon 54 (24, 25), but the modifications giving rise to the other species are yet to be identified. In addition to the pVHL species, other proteins were precipitated from RCC4/VHL cells, but not from RCC4 cells. Species observed in cells cultured under standard culture conditions were similar to those identified previously and assigned as fibronectin, CUL2, elongin B, and elongin C (10Duan D.R. Pause A. Burgess W.H. Aso T. Chen D.Y.T. Garrett K.P. Conaway R.C. Conaway J.W. Linehan W.M. Klausner R.D. Science. 1995; 269: 1402-1406Crossref PubMed Scopus (517) Google Scholar, 11Kibel A. Iliopoulos O. DeCaprio J.A. Kaelin Jr., W.G. Science. 1995; 269: 1444-1446Crossref PubMed Scopus (584) Google Scholar, 12Pause A. Lee S. Worrell R.A. Chen D.Y.T. Burgess W.H. Linehan W.M. Klausner R.D. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 1997; 94: 2156-2161Crossref PubMed Scopus (435) Google Scholar, 13Lonergan K.M. Iliopoulos O. Ohh M. Kamura T. Conaway R.C. Weliky Conaway J. Kaelin Jr., W.G. Mol. Cell. Biol. 1998; 18: 732-741Crossref PubMed Scopus (332) Google Scholar, 26Ohh M. Yauch R.L. Lonergan K.M. Whaley J.M. Stemmer-Rachamimov A.O. Louis D.N. Gavin B.J. Kley N. Kaelin Jr., W.G. Iliopoulos O. Mol. Cell. 1998; 1: 959-968Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (404) Google Scholar). In anti-pVHL immunoprecipitates from proteasomally inhibited RCC4/VHL cells two further species were seen, migrating with apparent molecular masses of ∼135 kDa and ∼120 kDa (Fig. 4 A), consistent with the mobilities of HIF-1α and HIF-2α on Western analysis. Identical species at these mobilities were observed in the anti-HA immunoprecipitates and could be seen at lower intensity when cells were exposed to hypoxia in the absence of proteasomal blockade (Fig.4 B). Parallel immunoprecipitations using specific HIF-1α and HIF-2α antibodies demonstrated precise co-migration with the labeled species co-precipitated with pVHL molecules (e.g.Figs. 4 C, 5 A, and 6 A). No other labeled species were revealed by the proteasomal blockade. Similar results were obtained in a range of immunoprecipitation experiments using anti-pVHL or anti-HA antibodies, indicating that any failure of capture is unlikely to be ascribable to steric interference with binding by one or other antibody. Thus, at least under the experimental conditions tested, we found that HIF-1α and HIF-2α are the most abundant proteasomal substrates interacting with pVHL.Figure 5Effects of truncating mutations of pVHL on co-immunoprecipitation of proteins and regulation of HIF -α subunits. A andB, autoradiographs of anti-HA or anti-HIF-α immunoprecipitates from a series of stable RCC4 transfectants expressing full-length () epitope-tagged pVHLs, or the indicated truncations. Cells were labeled with [35S]methionine/cysteine (4 h). A, N-terminal tagged pVHL is precipitated (a single species is expressed due to the artificial initiation), together with fibronectin (FN), elongins B and C, and on exposure to proteasomal inhibitors, HIF-α (lanes 1 and 2). Despite equivalent pVHL retrieval, these co-precipitated species were not seen with HA.VHL(72–213) (lane 5). B, C-terminal epitope-tagged pVHL is precipitated as a series of species. Despite equivalent or greater pVHL retrieval, the deletions greatly reduced capture of co-precipitated HIF-α and other species, although a small amount of HIF-2α was co-precipitated with pVHL(1–187).HA.C, immunoblot showing HIF-α subunit regulation by oxygen in RCC4 stable transfectants. Experiments were performed on at least two independent clones for each truncation with similar results.View Large Image Figure ViewerDownload Hi-res image Download (PPT)Figure 6Effect of tumor-associated missense mutations in the β-domain of pVHL on co-immunoprecipitation of proteins and regulation of HIF -α subunits. A,immunoprecipitates from a series of RCC4 transfectants stably expressing HA epitope-tagged wild type pVHL (WT), the indicated mutant pVHL, or the vector alone. Cellular proteins were labeled with [35S]methionine/cysteine in the presence of hypoxia and proteasomal inhibitors (4 h). Despite retrieval of pVHL which is greater than that in the wild type transfectant used in this experiment, mutant pVHLs showed much reduced (Y112H) or absent co-precipitation of HIF-α subunits. The pVHL mutants Y98N and Y112H co-precipitate elongin B/C. B, immunoblot showing HIF-α subunit regulation by oxygen in the same series of transfectants. Regulation is restored by wild type but not mutant pVHLs, although Y98N and Y112H partially suppressed the normoxic level of HIF-α.C, immunoblot of glucose transporter GLUT1 in lysates of normoxic transfectants. Wild type pVHL transfectants but not the mutants R82P, P86H, N90I, and Q96P suppress normoxic GLUT1 expression. Mutants Y98N and Y112H show incomplete suppression. Experiments were performed on at least two independent clones for each mutation with similar results.View Large Image Figure ViewerDownload Hi-res image Download (PPT) As a first step toward un