Fibrates and glitazones are two classes of drugs currently used in the treatment of dyslipidemia and insulin resistance (IR), respectively. Whereas glitazones are insulin sensitizers acting via activation of the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR) γ subtype, fibrates exert their lipid-lowering activity via PPARα. To determine whether PPARα activators also improve insulin sensitivity, we measured the capacity of three PPARα-selective agonists, fenofibrate, ciprofibrate, and the new compound GW9578, in two rodent models of high fat diet-induced (C57BL/6 mice) or genetic (obese Zucker rats) IR. At doses yielding serum concentrations shown to activate selectively PPARα, these compounds markedly lowered hyperinsulinemia and, when present, hyperglycemia in both animal models. This effect relied on the improvement of insulin action on glucose utilization, as indicated by a lower insulin peak in response to intraperitoneal glucose in ciprofibrate-treated IR obese Zucker rats. In addition, fenofibrate treatment prevented high fat diet-induced increase of body weight and adipose tissue mass without influencing caloric intake. The specificity for PPARα activationin vivo was demonstrated by marked alterations in the expression of PPARα target genes, whereas PPARγ target gene mRNA levels did not change in treated animals. These results indicate that compounds with a selective PPARα activation profile reduce insulin resistance without having adverse effects on body weight and adipose tissue mass in animal models of IR. Fibrates and glitazones are two classes of drugs currently used in the treatment of dyslipidemia and insulin resistance (IR), respectively. Whereas glitazones are insulin sensitizers acting via activation of the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR) γ subtype, fibrates exert their lipid-lowering activity via PPARα. To determine whether PPARα activators also improve insulin sensitivity, we measured the capacity of three PPARα-selective agonists, fenofibrate, ciprofibrate, and the new compound GW9578, in two rodent models of high fat diet-induced (C57BL/6 mice) or genetic (obese Zucker rats) IR. At doses yielding serum concentrations shown to activate selectively PPARα, these compounds markedly lowered hyperinsulinemia and, when present, hyperglycemia in both animal models. This effect relied on the improvement of insulin action on glucose utilization, as indicated by a lower insulin peak in response to intraperitoneal glucose in ciprofibrate-treated IR obese Zucker rats. In addition, fenofibrate treatment prevented high fat diet-induced increase of body weight and adipose tissue mass without influencing caloric intake. The specificity for PPARα activationin vivo was demonstrated by marked alterations in the expression of PPARα target genes, whereas PPARγ target gene mRNA levels did not change in treated animals. These results indicate that compounds with a selective PPARα activation profile reduce insulin resistance without having adverse effects on body weight and adipose tissue mass in animal models of IR. metabolic syndrome insulin resistance peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor analysis of variance lipoprotein lipase intravenous glucose tolerance test fatty acid tumor necrosis factor α MS,1 which develops as a result of IR (1.Reaven G.M. Annu. Rev. Med. 1993; 44: 121-131Crossref PubMed Scopus (782) Google Scholar), is characterized by glucose intolerance, hyperinsulinemia, dyslipidemia, and hypertension. These metabolic abnormalities are frequently associated with visceral obesity (2.Despres J.P. Nutrition. 1993; 9: 452-459PubMed Google Scholar). The clustering of multiple cardiovascular risk factors in MS results in increased risk for atherosclerotic vascular disease, the major cause of mortality and morbidity in type 2 diabetic patients (3.Despres J.P. Marette A. Curr. Opin. Lipidol. 1994; 5: 274-289Crossref PubMed Scopus (140) Google Scholar). Pharmacological treatment of MS should therefore aim at ameliorating IR and reducing cardiovascular risk factors. The PPAR nuclear receptors are important regulators of glucose and lipid homeostasis, which are activated by two classes of drugs: fibrates and glitazones (4.Schoonjans K. Martin G. Staels B. Auwerx J. Curr. Opin. Lipidol. 1997; 8: 159-166Crossref PubMed Scopus (471) Google Scholar). Glitazones are PPARγ activators, currently used for the treatment of IR and type 2 diabetes (5.Saltiel A.R. Olefsky J.M. Diabetes. 1996; 45: 1661-1669Crossref PubMed Scopus (0) Google Scholar). These compounds increase fatty acid (FA) uptake in adipose tissue (6.Oakes N.D. Camilleri S. Furler S.M. Chisholm D.J. Kraegen E.W. Metabolism. 1997; 46: 935-942Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (117) Google Scholar), due to PPARγ-mediated induction of lipoprotein lipase (LPL) and FA transporter proteins (7.Schoonjans K. Peinado-Onsurbe J. Lefebvre A.-M. Heyman R.A. Briggs M. Deeb S. Staels B. Auwerx J. EMBO J. 1996; 15: 5336-5348Crossref PubMed Scopus (1037) Google Scholar, 8.Martin G. Schoonjans K. Lefebvre A.-M. Staels B. Auwerx J. J. Biol. Chem. 1997; 272: 28210-28217Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (487) Google Scholar). These actions are considered major determinants of the effects of glitazones on glucose homeostasis, since they favor the diversion of FA from muscles resulting in a relief of inhibition of peripheral glucose utilization (6.Oakes N.D. Camilleri S. Furler S.M. Chisholm D.J. Kraegen E.W. Metabolism. 1997; 46: 935-942Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (117) Google Scholar). In addition, glitazones may also act by ameliorating TNFα-induced insulin resistance (9.Peraldi P. Xu M. Spiegelman B. J. Clin. Invest. 1997; 100: 1863-1869Crossref PubMed Scopus (307) Google Scholar, 10.Souza S.C. Yamamoto M.T. Franciosa M.D. Lien P. Greenberg A.S. Diabetes. 1998; 47: 691-695Crossref PubMed Scopus (154) Google Scholar, 11.Miles P.D.G. Romeo O.M. Higo K. Cohen A. Rafaat K. Olefsky J. Diabetes. 1997; 46: 1678-1683Crossref PubMed Google Scholar). However, PPARγ activation also enhances adipose differentiation and fat storage (12.Tontonoz P. Hu E. Spiegelman B.M. Cell. 1994; 79: 1147-1156Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (3173) Google Scholar). Moreover, glitazones increase food intake (13.Hallakou S. Doaré L. Foufelle F. Kergoat M. Guerre-Millo M. Berthault M.-F. Dugail I. Morin J. Auwerx J. Ferré P. Diabetes. 1997; 46: 1393-1399Crossref PubMed Scopus (283) Google Scholar, 14.De Vos P. Lefebvre A.M. Miller S.G. Guerre-Millo M. Wong K. Saladin R. Hamann L. Staels B. Briggs M.R. Auwerx J. J. Clin. Invest. 1996; 98: 1004-1009Crossref PubMed Scopus (370) Google Scholar), at least in part through the repression of leptin gene expression in adipose tissue (14.De Vos P. Lefebvre A.M. Miller S.G. Guerre-Millo M. Wong K. Saladin R. Hamann L. Staels B. Briggs M.R. Auwerx J. J. Clin. Invest. 1996; 98: 1004-1009Crossref PubMed Scopus (370) Google Scholar, 15.Zhang B. Graziano M.P. Doebber T.W. Leibowitz M.D. White-Carrington S. Szalkowski D.M. Hey P.T. Wu M. Cullinan C.A. Bailey P. Lollmann B. Frederich R. Flier J.S. Strader C.D. Smith R.G. J. Biol. Chem. 1996; 271: 9455-9459Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (188) Google Scholar). This action is likely to be mediated via PPARγ since heterozygous PPARγ-deficient mice display increased adipose tissue leptin expression accompanied with lowered food intake (16.Kubota N. Terauchi Y. Miki H. Tamemoto H. Yamauchi T. Komeda K. Satoh S. Nakano R. Ishii C. Sugiyama T. Eto K. Tsubamoto Y. Okuno A. Murakami K. Sekihara H. Hasegawa G. Naito M. Toyoshima Y. Tanaka S. Shiota K. Kitamura T. Fujita T. Ezaki O. Aizawa S. Nagai R. Tobe K. Kimura S. Kadowaki T. Mol. Cell. 1999; 4: 597-609Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (1243) Google Scholar). Accordingly, increased body weight gain (13.Hallakou S. Doaré L. Foufelle F. Kergoat M. Guerre-Millo M. Berthault M.-F. Dugail I. Morin J. Auwerx J. Ferré P. Diabetes. 1997; 46: 1393-1399Crossref PubMed Scopus (283) Google Scholar, 17.de Souza C.J., Yu, J.H. Robinson D.D. Ulrich R.G. Meglasson M.D. Diabetes. 1995; 44: 984-991Crossref PubMed Scopus (32) Google Scholar) and adipose tissue mass (14.De Vos P. Lefebvre A.M. Miller S.G. Guerre-Millo M. Wong K. Saladin R. Hamann L. Staels B. Briggs M.R. Auwerx J. J. Clin. Invest. 1996; 98: 1004-1009Crossref PubMed Scopus (370) Google Scholar) have been reported in rodents upon glitazone treatment, a feature that might also occur in humans (18.Schwartz S. Raskin P. Fonseca V. Graveline J.F. N. Engl. J. Med. 1998; 338: 861-866Crossref PubMed Scopus (336) Google Scholar). Results from the Helsinki Heart Study demonstrated that fibrates significantly reduce the incidence of cardiovascular disease in patients with type 2 diabetes (19.Huttunen J. Manninen V. Manttari M. Koskinen P. Romo M. Tenkanen L. Heinonen O. Frick M. Ann. Med. 1991; 23: 155-159Crossref PubMed Scopus (82) Google Scholar). Fibrates are hypolipidemic drugs that are very efficient in lowering elevated triglyceride concentrations consistently observed in these patients (20.Staels B. Dallongeville J. Auwerx J. Schoonjans K. Leitersdorf E. Fruchart J.-C. Circulation. 1998; 98: 2088-2093Crossref PubMed Scopus (1460) Google Scholar). The action of fibrates on lipid metabolism is mediated principally by activation of PPARα leading to altered expression of genes involved in lipid and lipoprotein metabolism in liver (21.Peters J.M. Hennuyer N. Staels B. Fruchart J.-C. Fievet C. Gonzalez F.J. Auwerx J. J. Biol. Chem. 1997; 272: 27307-27312Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (403) Google Scholar). Since fibrate treatment results in increased hepatic oxidation of fatty acids and reduced synthesis and secretion of triglycerides (20.Staels B. Dallongeville J. Auwerx J. Schoonjans K. Leitersdorf E. Fruchart J.-C. Circulation. 1998; 98: 2088-2093Crossref PubMed Scopus (1460) Google Scholar), as well as decreased plasma concentrations of cytokines, such as TNFα (22.Staels B. Koenig W. Habib A. Merval R. Lebret M. Pineda Torra I. Delerive P. Fadel A. Chinetti G. Fruchart J.-C. Najib J. Maclouf J. Tedgui A. Nature. 1998; 393: 790-793Crossref PubMed Scopus (1067) Google Scholar, 23.Madej A. Okopien B. Kowalski J. Zielinski M. Wysocki J. Szygula B. Kalina Z. Herman Z.S. Int. J. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 1998; 36: 345-349PubMed Google Scholar), we hypothesized that selective PPARα activators might also improve glucose homeostasis. To test this hypothesis, we assessed therefore the influence of selective PPARα activators on glucose homeostasis and body weight control in animal models of IR. A first series of experiments was performed on male C57BL/6 mice, 8 weeks of age at the start of the experiment, which were randomly assigned to three different diets for 14 weeks. The mice received a low fat diet (UAR AO4), a high fat diet containing coconut oil (29% w/w) as described (24.Surwit R.S. Feinglos M.N. Rodin J. Sutherland A. Petro A.E. Opara E.C. Kuhn C.M. Rebuffé-Scrive M. Metabolism. 1995; 44: 645-651Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (552) Google Scholar), or the same high fat diet supplemented with fenofibrate (0.05% w/w). A second series of experiments was performed with male Zucker rats of different ages, either bred at the U465 INSERM animal facility from pairs originally provided by the Harriet G. Bird Laboratory (Stow, MA) or obtained from Iffa-Credo (L'Arbresle, France). In the first experiment, 5-week-old obese fa/fa Zucker rats (n = 6 per group; U465 INSERM breeding facility) were fed a standard diet with or without ciprofibrate (0.005% w/w) for 15 days and subsequently subjected to an intravenous glucose tolerance test (IVGTT). In the second experiment, 8 lean Fa/? and 14 obese fa/fa 21-week-old Zucker rats (Iffa-Credo breeding facility) were randomized in two groups per genotype, based on base-line body weight and serum triglyceride and glucose concentrations. Rats of each group were given a standard rat diet with or without ciprofibrate (0.005% w/w) for 21 days. In the third experiment, 12 obese fa/fa 20-week-old Zucker rats (U465 INSERM breeding facility) were randomized in two groups/genotype based on base-line body weight and treated for 9 days once daily by oral gavage with GW9578 (5 mg/kg/day) (25.Brown P.J. Winegar D.A. Plunket K.D. Moore L.B. Lewis M.C. Wilson J.G. Sundseth S.S. Koble C.S. Wu Z. Chapman J.M. Lehmann J.M. Kliewer S.A. Willson T.M. J. Med. Chem. 1999; 42: 3785-3788Crossref PubMed Scopus (138) Google Scholar) or vehicle. The food intake of the animals was carefully monitored by weighing special gridded metal food containers at regular intervals. In all experiments, body weights were monitored throughout the treatment period. Except when glucose tolerance tests were performed, food was removed at 8 a.m. and blood samples collected 4 h later at the end of the treatment. Animals were euthanized and tissues collected and weighed. Serum or plasma was isolated and stored at −20 °C until further analysis. Animals were anesthetized at 2:00 p.m. after a 5-h fast by an intraperitoneal injection of sodium pentobarbital (50 mg/kg). Rats were injected with glucose (0.55 g/kg) in the saphenous vein and blood samples were collected from the tail vein in heparinized tubes at 0, 5, 10, 15, 20, and 30 min after the glucose load. Samples were kept on ice, and plasma was isolated and stored at −20 °C until analysis. Glucose concentrations were measured using enzymatic methods, insulin (CIS Bio) and leptin (Linco) by radioimmunoassay. RNA extractions and Northern blot analysis of total cellular RNA (7.Schoonjans K. Peinado-Onsurbe J. Lefebvre A.-M. Heyman R.A. Briggs M. Deeb S. Staels B. Auwerx J. EMBO J. 1996; 15: 5336-5348Crossref PubMed Scopus (1037) Google Scholar) were performed using human LPL (7.Schoonjans K. Peinado-Onsurbe J. Lefebvre A.-M. Heyman R.A. Briggs M. Deeb S. Staels B. Auwerx J. EMBO J. 1996; 15: 5336-5348Crossref PubMed Scopus (1037) Google Scholar), mouselep (14.De Vos P. Lefebvre A.M. Miller S.G. Guerre-Millo M. Wong K. Saladin R. Hamann L. Staels B. Briggs M.R. Auwerx J. J. Clin. Invest. 1996; 98: 1004-1009Crossref PubMed Scopus (370) Google Scholar), rat CD36/FAT (26.Abumrad N.A. El-Maghrabi M.R. Amri E.-Z. Lopez E. Grimaldi P.A. J. Biol. Chem. 1993; 268: 17665-17668Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Google Scholar), and internal control 36B4 probes and quantified by PhosphorImager analysis. To determine whether selective PPARα activators influence insulin and glucose homeostasis, experiments were performed in animal models of IR using ciprofibrate and fenofibrate, which are the most PPARα-selective fibrates currently available in clinics, as well as with the novel PPARα subtype-selective agonist GW9578 (25.Brown P.J. Winegar D.A. Plunket K.D. Moore L.B. Lewis M.C. Wilson J.G. Sundseth S.S. Koble C.S. Wu Z. Chapman J.M. Lehmann J.M. Kliewer S.A. Willson T.M. J. Med. Chem. 1999; 42: 3785-3788Crossref PubMed Scopus (138) Google Scholar). Results from in vitro transactivation assays demonstrated that ciprofibrate (data not shown) and fenofibrate (25.Brown P.J. Winegar D.A. Plunket K.D. Moore L.B. Lewis M.C. Wilson J.G. Sundseth S.S. Koble C.S. Wu Z. Chapman J.M. Lehmann J.M. Kliewer S.A. Willson T.M. J. Med. Chem. 1999; 42: 3785-3788Crossref PubMed Scopus (138) Google Scholar) activate PPARα with EC50 values of 20 and 30 μm, respectively, whereas PPARγ is only marginally activated by any of these compounds (EC50 value for PPARγ of 300 and >300 μm for fenofibrate and ciprofibrate respectively). Neither ciprofibrate nor fenofibrate activates PPARδ (Ref. 25.Brown P.J. Winegar D.A. Plunket K.D. Moore L.B. Lewis M.C. Wilson J.G. Sundseth S.S. Koble C.S. Wu Z. Chapman J.M. Lehmann J.M. Kliewer S.A. Willson T.M. J. Med. Chem. 1999; 42: 3785-3788Crossref PubMed Scopus (138) Google Scholar and data not shown). The third compound, GW9578, was chosen on the basis of its high activity and specificity for PPARα, with EC50values for murine PPARα of 5 nm (as opposed to 1.5 μm for PPARγ and 2.6 μm for PPARδ) (25.Brown P.J. Winegar D.A. Plunket K.D. Moore L.B. Lewis M.C. Wilson J.G. Sundseth S.S. Koble C.S. Wu Z. Chapman J.M. Lehmann J.M. Kliewer S.A. Willson T.M. J. Med. Chem. 1999; 42: 3785-3788Crossref PubMed Scopus (138) Google Scholar). The influence of fenofibrate on glucose homeostasis was first analyzed in C57BL/6 mice, which develop obesity and IR when fed a high fat diet (24.Surwit R.S. Feinglos M.N. Rodin J. Sutherland A. Petro A.E. Opara E.C. Kuhn C.M. Rebuffé-Scrive M. Metabolism. 1995; 44: 645-651Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (552) Google Scholar). Feeding C57BL/6 mice with the high fat diet resulted in hyperinsulinemia and mild hyperglycemia, which were both corrected by low dose fenofibrate treatment (Fig. 1,A and B). By contrast, treatment of chow-fed C57BL/6 mice (n = 10/group) during 10 weeks with fenofibrate (0.1% w/w) incorporated in the diet did not influence serum glucose (untreated: 1.89 ± 0.33 versus treated: 2.03 ± 0.48 g/liter) or insulin (untreated: 17.6 ± 6.0versus treated: 16.3 ± 7.8 microunits/ml) concentrations, indicating that the effects of fenofibrate on glucose homeostasis occur only in IR fat-fed mice. Interestingly, fenofibrate treatment prevented the high fat diet-induced increase in body weight (Fig.2) and adipose tissue mass (Fig. 1,C and D). Identical results were obtained in a separate experiment with C57BL/6 mice submitted to the same nutritional protocol (Fig. 3). In these animals, serum leptin concentrations were measured and found to be positively correlated with body weight and epididymal adipose tissue weight, a relationship that was not influenced by fenofibrate treatment (Fig. 3). These observations indicate that fenofibrate does not exert a specific regulatory effect on leptin production. Interestingly, despite lower leptin concentrations, food intake was not increased in the mice fed the fenofibrate-enriched diet (13.8 ± 1.0 kcal/day/animal;n = 14) versus high fat diet alone (13.8 ± 0.9 kcal/day/animal; n = 14). These data further show that the effects of fenofibrate on glucose homeostasis, body weight, and adipose tissue mass are not driven by a reduction in caloric intake.Figure 3The positive correlation between leptin and body weight (A) or epididymal adipose tissue weight (B) is not influenced by fenofibrate treatment in C57BL/6 mice. Male C57BL/6 mice (n = 6/group) were treated as indicated under Fig. 1. Body and epididymal adipose tissue weights and serum leptin concentrations were measured at the end of the treatment period.View Large Image Figure ViewerDownload Hi-res image Download (PPT) To evaluate which PPAR subtype was activated in vivo, Northern blot analysis of PPARα- and PPARγ-specific target gene expression was performed. To this aim, the mRNA levels of the gene coding for the fatty acid transporter CD36/FAT, which has been implicated in the development of the IR syndrome (27.Aitman T.J. Glazier A.M. Wallace C.A. Cooper L.D. Norsworthy P.J. Wahid F.N. Al-Majali K.M. Trembling P.M. Mann C.J. Shoulders C.C. Graf D. St. Lezin E. Kurtz T.W. Kren V. Pravenec M. Ibrahimi A. Abumrad N.A. Stanton L.W. Scott J. Nat. Genet. 1999; 21: 76-83Crossref PubMed Scopus (649) Google Scholar), were measured based on the observation that its expression is regulated in a tissue-selective manner by activators of PPARα in liver and PPARγ in adipose tissue (28.Motojima K. Passilly P. Peters J.M. Gonzalez F.J. Latruffe N. J. Biol. Chem. 1998; 273: 16710-16714Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (456) Google Scholar). In the C57BL/6 mice treated with fenofibrate, a marked increase in CD36/FAT mRNA levels were observed in the liver, whereas mRNA levels of CD36/FAT remained unchanged in epididymal adipose tissue (Fig. 4). These observations suggest that fenofibrate treatment resulted in selective activation of PPARα in liver, but not of PPARγ in adipose tissue of these mice. To test whether PPARα activators might also improve glucose homeostasis in another model of IR, we chose the obese Zucker rat, which bears a mutation in the leptin receptor gene resulting in early onset obesity and marked hyperinsulinemia (29.Bazin R. Lavau M. J. Lipid. Res. 1982; 23: 839-849Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Google Scholar). Depending on the genetic background, these rats may also develop hyperglycemia later in life. Ciprofibrate treatment of 5-week-old obese Zucker rats lowered body weight gain and epididymal adipose tissue mass and reduced plasma insulin concentrations by almost 50% (TableI). Furthermore, the plasma insulin response to glucose during IVGTT was markedly decreased (Fig.5), demonstrating a clear-cut improvement of insulin action on glucose utilization. Serum glucose concentrations and IVGTT glucose curves were normal and comparable between treated and untreated obese rats (Table I and Fig. 5).Table IInfluence of ciprofibrate on body and adipose tissue weight and plasma insulin and glucose concentrations in 5-week-old obese Zucker ratsControl (n = 6)Treated (n = 6)p valueBody weight (g)202 ± 6185 ± 3p < 0.05Body weight gain (g/14 days)112 ± 395 ± 3p < 0.01Epididymal adipose tissue weight (g)1.63 ± 0.071.22 ± 0.05p < 0.01Glucose (g/liter)0.71 ± 0.050.64 ± 0.04NSaNS, not significant.Insulin (microunits/ml)109 ± 1255 ± 4p < 0.01a NS, not significant. Open table in a new tab In older obese Zucker rats, ciprofibrate treatment significantly decreased serum insulin concentrations (Fig.6), even though the insulin levels in these animals remained still higher than in age-matched lean (Fa/?) rats (insulinemia: 45 ± 8 microunits/ml; n = 4). In these obese rats, which have developed increased blood glucose concentrations at the age of 24 weeks, ciprofibrate treatment also decreased serum glucose concentrations (Fig. 6). In contrast to the observation in young obese Zucker rats, no change was detectable in body weight (Fig. 6) and adipose tissue mass (data not shown) at this age. Nevertheless, serum leptin concentrations were slightly decreased (Fig. 6), suggesting that adipose tissue tended to be reduced. Ciprofibrate treatment was without effect on serum insulin (untreated,n = 4: 45 ± 8; treated, n = 4: 53 ± 5 microunits/ml), glucose (untreated, n = 4: 1.2 ± 0.1; treated, n = 4: 1.0 ± 0.1 g/liter) and leptin (untreated, n = 4: 7.4 ± 0.8; treated, n = 4: 6.7 ± 1.0 ng/ml) concentrations in lean Zucker rats of the same age. At the dose administered to the obese Zucker rats, peak serum concentrations of ciprofibrate of 91 ± 3 μm were reached indicating, based on the EC50 values for PPARα (20 μm) and PPARγ (> 300 μm) activation, that ciprofibrate likely activates selectively PPARα in the obese rats. This was further demonstrated by a marked increase in CD36/FAT mRNA levels observed in the liver, with no change in both epididymal and perirenal adipose tissue (Fig.7 A). Furthermore, mRNA levels of LPL and leptin, two other genes regulated by PPARγ, but not by PPARα activators in adipose tissue of rats (7.Schoonjans K. Peinado-Onsurbe J. Lefebvre A.-M. Heyman R.A. Briggs M. Deeb S. Staels B. Auwerx J. EMBO J. 1996; 15: 5336-5348Crossref PubMed Scopus (1037) Google Scholar, 14.De Vos P. Lefebvre A.M. Miller S.G. Guerre-Millo M. Wong K. Saladin R. Hamann L. Staels B. Briggs M.R. Auwerx J. J. Clin. Invest. 1996; 98: 1004-1009Crossref PubMed Scopus (370) Google Scholar, 15.Zhang B. Graziano M.P. Doebber T.W. Leibowitz M.D. White-Carrington S. Szalkowski D.M. Hey P.T. Wu M. Cullinan C.A. Bailey P. Lollmann B. Frederich R. Flier J.S. Strader C.D. Smith R.G. J. Biol. Chem. 1996; 271: 9455-9459Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (188) Google Scholar), were similar in epididymal adipose tissue of treated and control animals (LPL: untreated, n = 7:100 ± 16%versus treated, n = 7:109 ± 11%;lep: untreated, n = 7:100 ± 18%versus treated, n = 7:126 ± 8%). By contrast, hepatic mRNA levels of the PPARα target genes (21.Peters J.M. Hennuyer N. Staels B. Fruchart J.-C. Fievet C. Gonzalez F.J. Auwerx J. J. Biol. Chem. 1997; 272: 27307-27312Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (403) Google Scholar, 28.Motojima K. Passilly P. Peters J.M. Gonzalez F.J. Latruffe N. J. Biol. Chem. 1998; 273: 16710-16714Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (456) Google Scholar) apoA-I (untreated, n = 7:100 ± 37%versus treated, n = 7:35 ± 12%) and apoC-III (untreated, n = 7:100 ± 12%versus treated, n = 7:35 ± 4%) were significantly affected by ciprofibrate treatment. In addition, the activity and mRNA levels of CPT-I and CPT-II as well as β-oxidation rates in the liver were significantly enhanced by ciprofibrate treatment (data not shown). These data indicate that ciprofibrate treatment results in selective PPARα, but not PPARγ activation in these obese Zucker rats. Similar results were obtained in a separate series of old obese Zucker rats treated for 9 days with the highly specific PPARα agonist GW9578 (25.Brown P.J. Winegar D.A. Plunket K.D. Moore L.B. Lewis M.C. Wilson J.G. Sundseth S.S. Koble C.S. Wu Z. Chapman J.M. Lehmann J.M. Kliewer S.A. Willson T.M. J. Med. Chem. 1999; 42: 3785-3788Crossref PubMed Scopus (138) Google Scholar). In contrast to the ciprofibrate experiment, these obese Zucker rats were still normoglycemic at the age of 21 weeks, but serum insulin concentrations were significantly elevated, indicating a state of insulin resistance. Treatment with GW9578 resulted in markedly reduced serum insulin concentrations, whereas serum glucose levels were not affected (Fig. 6). Neither serum leptin levels nor body weights were changed, probably due to the short time of treatment in this particular experiment (Fig. 6). No effect of the treatment was observed on food consumption (untreated: 25.6 ± 6.7 g/day versustreated:25.0 ± 3.2 g/day), precluding an effect via dietary changes. When mRNA levels of CD36/FAT were measured, a pronounced increase of liver CD36/FAT mRNA levels was observed, whereas both epididymal and perirenal adipose tissue CD36/FAT mRNA levels remained unchanged after GW9578 treatment (Fig. 7). Furthermore, GW9578 treatment did not influence LPL or leptin mRNA levels in both adipose tissue depots (data not shown). Thus, as with ciprofibrate, treatment with GW9578 resulted in efficient PPARα activation, whereas PPARγ was not activated in these animals. Previous studies have demonstrated that certain naturally occurring and β-substituted FA (such as conjugated linoleic acid and MEDICA 16) (30.Houseknecht K.L. Vanden Heuvel J.P. Moya-Camarena S.Y. Portocarrero C.P. Peck L.W. Nickel K.P. Belury M.A. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 1998; 244: 678-682Crossref PubMed Scopus (571) Google Scholar, 31.Mayorek N. Kalderon B. Itach E. Bar-Tana J. Diabetes. 1997; 46: 1958-1964Crossref PubMed Scopus (28) Google Scholar) and the fibrate bezafibrate (32.Matsui H. Okumura K. Kawakami K. Hibino M. Tki Y. Ito T. Diabetes. 1997; 46: 348-353Crossref PubMed Google Scholar) improve insulin sensitivity and normalize impaired glucose tolerance in rat models of IR. In humans bezafibrate may also improve glucose homeostasis (33.Jones I.R. Swai A. Taylor R. Miller M. Laker M.F. Alberti G. Diabetes Care. 1990; 13: 855-863Crossref PubMed Scopus (102) Google Scholar, 34.Mikhailides D.P. Mathur S. Barradas M.A. Dandoma P. J. Cardiovasc. Pharmacol. 1990; 16 Suppl. 9: 26-29Crossref Scopus (22) Google Scholar, 35.Inoue I. Takahashi K. Katayama S. Akabane S. Negishi K. Suzuki M. Ishii J. Kawazu S. Diabetes Res. Clin. Pract. 1994; 25: 199-205Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (34) Google Scholar). Although fatty acids are PPARα activators, they also activate PPARγ and PPARδ equally well (36.Willson M.T. Wahli W. Curr. Opin. Chem. Biol. 1997; 1: 235-241Crossref PubMed Scopus (183) Google Scholar). Similarly, in contrast to ciprofibrate and fenofibrate, bezafibrate activates PPARα, PPARγ, and PPARδ with comparable EC50 values (PPARα: 50; PPARγ: 60 μm; PPARδ: 20 μm; Ref.25.Brown P.J. Winegar D.A. Plunket K.D. Moore L.B. Lewis M.C. Wilson J.G. Sundseth S.S. Koble C.S. Wu Z. Chapman J.M. Lehmann J.M. Kliewer S.A. Willson T.M. J. Med. Chem. 1999; 42: 3785-3788Crossref PubMed Scopus (138) Google Scholar). Therefore, it is impossible to conclude via which PPAR form the effects of these compounds on glucose homeostasis are mediated. In the present study we demonstrate that, in two models of diet-induced and genetic obesity-linked IR, PPARα activators correct elevated serum glucose and insulin concentrations by increasing insulin action on glucose utilization. Most importantly, fibrate PPARα activators also decrease adipose tissue mass, by a mechanism independent of changes in food intake and leptin gene expression. This effect is in sharp contrast to PPARγ activators, which increase body weight (13.Hallakou S. Doaré L. Foufelle F. Kergoat M. Guerre-Millo M. Berthault M.-F. Dugail I. Morin J. Auwerx J. Ferré P. Diabetes. 1997; 46: 1393-1399Crossref PubMed Scopus (283) Google Scholar, 17.de Souza C.J., Yu, J.H. Robinson D.D. Ulrich R.G. Meglasson M.D. Diabetes. 1995; 44: 984-991Crossref PubMed Scopus (32) Google Scholar, 18.Schwartz S. Raskin P. Fonseca V. Graveline J.F. N. Engl. J. Med. 1998; 338: 861-866Crossref PubMed Scopus (336) Google Scholar) and epididymal adipose tissue mass in rodents (14.De Vos P. Lefebvre A.M. Miller S.G. Guerre-Millo M. Wong K. Saladin R. Hamann L. Staels B. Briggs M.R. Auwerx J. J. Clin. Invest. 1996; 98: 1004-1009Crossref PubMed Scopus (370) Google Scholar). Several lines of evidence indicate that the nuclear receptor PPARα mediates the actions of ciprofibrate, fenofibrate and GW9578 on glucose homeostasis. First, based on the EC50 values of these compounds for the different PPARs and their serum concentrations attained in the obese Zucker rats, ciprofibrate and fenofibrate likely activate PPARα maximally, whereas PPARγ activation is negligible. Furthermore, ciprofibrate treatment increased mitochondrial β-oxidation and serum concentrations of ketone bodies (data not shown) in obese Zucker rats, which is consistent with PPARα activation. This is in contrast to the effect of glitazone PPARγ activators, which decrease serum ketone bodies (37.Oakes N.D. Kennedy C.J. Jenkins A.B. Laybutt D.R. Chisholm D.J. Kraegen E.W. Diabetes. 1994; 43: 1203-1210Crossref PubMed Scopus (232) Google Scholar, 38.Inoue I. Takahashi K. Katayama S. Harada Y. Negishi K. Itabashi A. Ishii J. Metabolism. 1995; 44: 1626-1630Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (50) Google Scholar) and have either no effect on (39.Murakami K. Tobe K. Ide T. Mochizuki T. Ohashi M. Akanuma Y. Yazaki Y. Kadowaki T. Diabetes. 1998; 47: 1841-1847Crossref PubMed Scopus (244) Google Scholar) or may even decrease fatty acid oxidation (6.Oakes N.D. Camilleri S. Furler S.M. Chisholm D.J. Kraegen E.W. Metabolism. 1997; 46: 935-942Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (117) Google Scholar, 38.Inoue I. Takahashi K. Katayama S. Harada Y. Negishi K. Itabashi A. Ishii J. Metabolism. 1995; 44: 1626-1630Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (50) Google Scholar). Second, treatment of obese Zucker rats with the highly specific PPARα ligand GW9578 resulted in a decrease of serum insulin concentrations. Finally, whereas glitazones have been shown to markedly influence gene expression in adipose tissue of both normal and obese Zucker rats (7.Schoonjans K. Peinado-Onsurbe J. Lefebvre A.-M. Heyman R.A. Briggs M. Deeb S. Staels B. Auwerx J. EMBO J. 1996; 15: 5336-5348Crossref PubMed Scopus (1037) Google Scholar,13.Hallakou S. Doaré L. Foufelle F. Kergoat M. Guerre-Millo M. Berthault M.-F. Dugail I. Morin J. Auwerx J. Ferré P. Diabetes. 1997; 46: 1393-1399Crossref PubMed Scopus (283) Google Scholar, 28.Motojima K. Passilly P. Peters J.M. Gonzalez F.J. Latruffe N. J. Biol. Chem. 1998; 273: 16710-16714Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (456) Google Scholar), GW9578 and ciprofibrate did not influence the expression of any known PPARγ target genes, including CD36/FAT, in adipose tissue. In sharp contrast, PPARα target gene expression in liver was significantly altered. These data provide in vivo evidence for selective activation of PPARα, but not PPARγ in the ciprofibrate- and GW9578-treated Zucker rats as well as in the fenofibrate-treated C57BL/6 mice. Although not the subject of the present study, PPARα ligands may influence body weight and glucose homeostasis through different mechanisms. At the doses employed in the present study, fibrates do not appear to have major effects on adipose tissue (present study and Refs.7.Schoonjans K. Peinado-Onsurbe J. Lefebvre A.-M. Heyman R.A. Briggs M. Deeb S. Staels B. Auwerx J. EMBO J. 1996; 15: 5336-5348Crossref PubMed Scopus (1037) Google Scholar and 8.Martin G. Schoonjans K. Lefebvre A.-M. Staels B. Auwerx J. J. Biol. Chem. 1997; 272: 28210-28217Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (487) Google Scholar). In contrast, fibrates increase hepatic β-oxidation in obese Zucker rats (data not shown). This catabolic action on FA would result in an increased FA flux from peripheral tissues, such as skeletal muscle and adipose tissue, to the liver, a decreased FA synthesis, and a lowered delivery of triglycerides to peripheral tissues. As such fibrates might alleviate the FA-mediated inhibition of insulin-stimulated oxidative and non-oxidative glucose disposal in skeletal muscle (40.Randle P.J. Garland P.B. Hales C.N. Newsholme E.A. Lancet. 1963; I: 785-794Abstract Scopus (3892) Google Scholar, 41.Boden G. Chen X. Ruiz J. White J.V. Rossetti L. J. Clin. Invest. 1994; 93: 2438-2446Crossref PubMed Scopus (867) Google Scholar), thus ameliorating IR. Furthermore, by lowering plasma triglycerides, fibrates may decrease skeletal muscle triglyceride content, which is significantly related to IR and obesity (42.Goodpaster B.H. Kelley D.E. Curr. Opin. Lipidol. 1998; 9: 231-236Crossref PubMed Scopus (68) Google Scholar). As an alternative or concomitant mechanism, fibrates might improve insulin action by decreasing production of cytokines, such as interleukin-6 and TNFα. TNFα concentrations are increased in IR obese humans (43.Hotamisligil G.S. Arner P. Caro J.F. Atkinson R.L. Spiegelman B.M. J. Clin. Invest. 1995; 95: 2409-2415Crossref PubMed Scopus (3047) Google Scholar) and Zucker rats (44.Hotamisligil G.S. Shargill N.S. Spiegelman B.M. Science. 1993; 259: 87-91Crossref PubMed Scopus (6341) Google Scholar), as well as in rodents fed a high fat diet (45.Morin C.L. Eckel R.H. Marcel T. Pagliassotti M.J. Endocrinology. 1997; 138: 4665-4671Crossref PubMed Scopus (65) Google Scholar). This cytokine has been implicated in the development of IR by interfering negatively with insulin signaling (44.Hotamisligil G.S. Shargill N.S. Spiegelman B.M. Science. 1993; 259: 87-91Crossref PubMed Scopus (6341) Google Scholar). In support for this hypothesis is the demonstration that PPARα activators inhibit NFκB signaling, resulting in lowered production of cytokines by smooth muscle cells and decreased plasma concentrations of cytokines (22.Staels B. Koenig W. Habib A. Merval R. Lebret M. Pineda Torra I. Delerive P. Fadel A. Chinetti G. Fruchart J.-C. Najib J. Maclouf J. Tedgui A. Nature. 1998; 393: 790-793Crossref PubMed Scopus (1067) Google Scholar, 23.Madej A. Okopien B. Kowalski J. Zielinski M. Wysocki J. Szygula B. Kalina Z. Herman Z.S. Int. J. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 1998; 36: 345-349PubMed Google Scholar). Interestingly, such a mechanism has also been suggested to participate, at least in part, in the insulin-sensitizing effect of glitazone PPARγ activators (11.Miles P.D.G. Romeo O.M. Higo K. Cohen A. Rafaat K. Olefsky J. Diabetes. 1997; 46: 1678-1683Crossref PubMed Google Scholar, 46.Jiang C. Ting A.T. Seed B. Nature. 1998; 391: 82-86Crossref PubMed Scopus (542) Google Scholar). Finally, it cannot be excluded that PPARα agonists exert direct insulin-sensitizing actions. In contrast to glitazones, which are high affinity PPARγ ligands, the current clinically used fibrates are low affinity PPARα ligands. In conclusion, the results from this study suggest that PPARα ligands with higher affinity, in addition to being useful for the treatment of dyslipidemia, may also be of use to improve insulin sensitivity. Further studies in patients with MS are required to determine whether highly active and selective PPARα agonists also improve glucose homeostasis in man. We thank C. Ilic and V. Guilbert for technical contributions and K. Kristiansen for providing us the CD36/FAT cDNA.