Article5 May 2005free access Developmental specificity of auxin response by pairs of ARF and Aux/IAA transcriptional regulators Dolf Weijers Dolf Weijers ZMBP Entwicklungsgenetik, Universität Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany Search for more papers by this author Eva Benkova Eva Benkova ZMBP Entwicklungsgenetik, Universität Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany Search for more papers by this author Katja E Jäger Katja E Jäger ZMBP Entwicklungsgenetik, Universität Tübingen, Tübingen, GermanyPresent address: Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, John Innes Centre, Norwich Research Park, Colney, Norwich NR4 7UH, UK Search for more papers by this author Alexandra Schlereth Alexandra Schlereth ZMBP Entwicklungsgenetik, Universität Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany Search for more papers by this author Thorsten Hamann Thorsten Hamann ZMBP Entwicklungsgenetik, Universität Tübingen, Tübingen, GermanyPresent address: Department of Plant Biology, Carnegie Institution of Washington, Stanford, CA 94305, USA Search for more papers by this author Marika Kientz Marika Kientz ZMBP Entwicklungsgenetik, Universität Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany Search for more papers by this author Jill C Wilmoth Jill C Wilmoth Department of Biology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA Search for more papers by this author Jason W Reed Jason W Reed Department of Biology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA Search for more papers by this author Gerd Jürgens Corresponding Author Gerd Jürgens ZMBP Entwicklungsgenetik, Universität Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany Search for more papers by this author Dolf Weijers Dolf Weijers ZMBP Entwicklungsgenetik, Universität Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany Search for more papers by this author Eva Benkova Eva Benkova ZMBP Entwicklungsgenetik, Universität Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany Search for more papers by this author Katja E Jäger Katja E Jäger ZMBP Entwicklungsgenetik, Universität Tübingen, Tübingen, GermanyPresent address: Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, John Innes Centre, Norwich Research Park, Colney, Norwich NR4 7UH, UK Search for more papers by this author Alexandra Schlereth Alexandra Schlereth ZMBP Entwicklungsgenetik, Universität Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany Search for more papers by this author Thorsten Hamann Thorsten Hamann ZMBP Entwicklungsgenetik, Universität Tübingen, Tübingen, GermanyPresent address: Department of Plant Biology, Carnegie Institution of Washington, Stanford, CA 94305, USA Search for more papers by this author Marika Kientz Marika Kientz ZMBP Entwicklungsgenetik, Universität Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany Search for more papers by this author Jill C Wilmoth Jill C Wilmoth Department of Biology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA Search for more papers by this author Jason W Reed Jason W Reed Department of Biology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA Search for more papers by this author Gerd Jürgens Corresponding Author Gerd Jürgens ZMBP Entwicklungsgenetik, Universität Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany Search for more papers by this author Author Information Dolf Weijers1,‡, Eva Benkova1,‡, Katja E Jäger1, Alexandra Schlereth1, Thorsten Hamann1, Marika Kientz1, Jill C Wilmoth2, Jason W Reed2 and Gerd Jürgens 1 1ZMBP Entwicklungsgenetik, Universität Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany 2Department of Biology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA ‡These authors contributed equally to this work *Corresponding author. ZMBP Entwicklungsgenetik, Universität Tübingen, Auf der Morgenstelle 3, 72076 Tübingen, Germany. Tel.: +49 7071 297 8887; Fax: +49 7071 297 5797; E-mail: [email protected] The EMBO Journal (2005)24:1874-1885https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.emboj.7600659 PDFDownload PDF of article text and main figures. ToolsAdd to favoritesDownload CitationsTrack CitationsPermissions ShareFacebookTwitterLinked InMendeleyWechatReddit Figures & Info The plant hormone auxin elicits many specific context-dependent developmental responses. Auxin promotes degradation of Aux/IAA proteins that prevent transcription factors of the auxin response factor (ARF) family from regulating auxin-responsive target genes. Aux/IAAs and ARFs are represented by large gene families in Arabidopsis. Here we show that stabilization of BDL/IAA12 or its sister protein IAA13 prevents MP/ARF5-dependent embryonic root formation whereas stabilized SHY2/IAA3 interferes with seedling growth. Although both bdl and shy2-2 proteins inhibited MP/ARF5-dependent reporter gene activation, shy2-2 was much less efficient than bdl to interfere with embryonic root initiation when expressed from the BDL promoter. Similarly, MP was much more efficient than ARF16 in this process. When expressed from the SHY2 promoter, both shy2-2 and bdl inhibited cell elongation and auxin-induced gene expression in the seedling hypocotyl. By contrast, gravitropism and auxin-induced gene expression in the root, which were promoted by functionally redundant NPH4/ARF7 and ARF19 proteins, were inhibited by shy2-2, but not by bdl protein. Our results suggest that auxin signals are converted into specific responses by matching pairs of coexpressed ARF and Aux/IAA proteins. Introduction The small signaling molecule auxin elicits a multitude of developmental and physiological responses, such as patterning in embryogenesis, apical dominance, cell elongation and gravitropism (Berleth and Sachs, 2001). The cellular response to auxin involves changes in gene regulation. Genes upregulated by auxin contain in their promoters auxin-response elements (AuxRE), which bind transcription factors of the auxin response factor (ARF) family (Ulmasov et al, 1997a, 1999). At low auxin concentrations, ARFs are thought to be inhibited by interacting proteins of the Aux/IAA family via domains III and IV that are conserved between the two protein families (Ulmasov et al, 1997b). Aux/IAA genes were originally identified as genes that are rapidly upregulated in response to auxin (Abel et al, 1994). High auxin concentrations promote degradation of Aux/IAA proteins, which would release interacting ARFs from inhibition (Tiwari et al, 2001, 2003). Degradation of Aux/IAA proteins involves their conserved domain II, which mediates interaction with the SCFTIR1 ubiquitin-ligase complex for targeting of Aux/IAAs to the proteasome (Gray et al, 2001). Amino-acid exchanges in conserved residues of domain II affect the interaction with the SCFTIR1 ubiquitin-ligase complex, stabilizing mutant Aux/IAA proteins (Ramos et al, 2001). Such stabilizing mutations have been reported for 10 Aux/IAA genes (Reed, 2001; Hellmann and Estelle, 2002; Tatematsu et al, 2004; Yang et al, 2004). How is a generic signal such as auxin converted into specific context-dependent developmental responses? Auxin can increase the affinity between the SCFTIR1 ubiquitin-ligase complex and Aux/IAA proteins in a cell-free system without modifying the latter (Dharmasiri et al, 2003; Tian et al, 2003; Kepinski and Leyser, 2004). This observation suggests that the specificity of response to auxin is generated by interacting Aux/IAA and ARF proteins present in the auxin-responsive cell. The Arabidopsis genome encodes 22 ARF and 29 Aux/IAA proteins (Remington et al, 2004). Several ARFs have been assigned roles in specific developmental processes on the basis of their loss-of-function mutant phenotypes (Berleth and Jürgens, 1993; Przemeck et al, 1996; Sessions et al, 1997; Hardtke and Berleth, 1998; Harper et al, 2000; Nemhauser et al, 2000; Li et al, 2004; Tian et al, 2004). Although ARFs appear to have unique functions in some contexts, they display overlapping functions in others (Hardtke et al, 2004; Li et al, 2004). For example, MP/ARF5 is required for embryonic root initiation whereas both MP and NPH4/ARF7 contribute to cotyledon development (Hardtke et al, 2004). A larger number of Aux/IAA proteins have been implicated in diverse processes on the basis of their gain-of-function mutant phenotypes (Reed, 2001; Tatematsu et al, 2004; Yang et al, 2004). The mutant phenotypes are distinct for some Aux/IAA proteins but related for others, suggesting both distinct and overlapping roles in development. For example, stabilized BDL/IAA12 protein interferes with embryonic root initiation as does the loss of MP/ARF5 protein, suggesting that these two proteins generate a specific developmental response (Hamann et al, 2002). In contrast to ARF genes, no loss-of-function phenotypes have been reported for Aux/IAA genes except SHY2/IAA3, which is involved in seedling development (Tian and Reed, 1999). Most of the Aux/IAA genes exist as sister genes that appear to have originated by segmental duplications of the genome whereas ARF genes are not located in duplicated segments (Remington et al, 2004). For example, one pair of sister genes consists of BDL/IAA12, which is involved in embryonic root initiation, and IAA13 (Hamann et al, 1999, 2002). It is not known whether IAA13 performs a comparable role to BDL or rather acts in a different process. Furthermore, although mutations in different ARF and Aux/IAA genes cause distinct phenotypes, it is unclear how these proteins contribute to specificity of action. Here we address how Aux/IAA and ARF proteins generate specific responses to auxin. The effects of stabilized BDL and SHY2 proteins on embryonic root formation and seedling development were analyzed by swapping their gene promoters. These proteins were also assayed for their ability to inhibit MP-dependent gene activation in the absence of plant-specific accessory factors. Finally, candidate ARF proteins for interaction with BDL or SHY2 were examined for roles in BDL- and SHY2-dependent processes. Our results suggest that transcriptionally regulated optimized pairs of interacting Aux/IAA–ARF proteins generate developmental specificity of auxin response. Results IAA13 is a functional paralog of BDL/IAA12 Many Aux/IAA genes, including BDL/IAA12 and its closest homolog IAA13 (At2g33310), appear in regions of segmental genome duplications (Remington et al, 2004). To examine whether IAA13 is functionally related to BDL/IAA12, we first introduced a proline to serine mutation (iaa13P80S; Figure 1A) in the conserved domain II of a Myc-epitope-tagged transgenic copy of the IAA13 gene. The homologous mutation in the BDL gene causes semidominant gain-of-function phenotypes, both in the bdl mutant and when provided as a transgene (Hamann et al, 2002). Plants carrying the iaa13P80S transgene resembled bdl mutants in all respects. A single transgene copy caused stunted growth (not shown), whereas two copies caused embryonic phenotypes (Figure 1B). Homozygous iaa13P80S seedlings had no root, and the origin of this defect could be traced to a failure in the specification of the hypophysis-, the embryonic root meristem precursor- and subsequent abnormal cell division patterns (Figure 1B). Western blot analysis showed that the engineered iaa13P80S mutation led to the stabilization of the IAA13 protein (Figure 1C). This effect was quantitatively similar to the stabilization of the BDL protein in bdl mutants (Figure 1C), and caused comparable frequencies of embryo phenotypes (Table I). Figure 1.Expression of IAA13, and analysis of an iaa13 stabilizing mutation. (A) Domain structure of Aux/IAA proteins. The four conserved domains are depicted. Below is the consensus amino-acid sequence in conserved domain II of the engineered iaa13P80S mutation, of bdl and of shy2-2. (B) Rootless seedling homozygous for the iaa13P80S mutation (left); inset: bdl seedling. Comparison of a wild-type (middle) and homozygous iaa13P80S (right) globular stage embryo shows defects in hypophysis (hyp) specification; inset: abnormal division of hypophysis in bdl embryo. (C) Western blots (Myc antibody) of protein extracts from pBDL∷BDL, pBDL∷bdl, pIAA13∷IAA13 and pIAA13∷iaa13P80S seedlings. Individual lanes represent independent transgenics. Asterisk: unspecific crossreacting band demonstrating equal loading. (D) mRNA in situ hybridization with an IAA13 antisense probe in wild-type and bdl (right) embryos. RNA signals are in red-brown. (E) GUS activity in pIAA13∷GUS embryos and seedling root tip (right). Download figure Download PowerPoint Table 1. Frequencies of rootless phenotypes in genotypes used in this study Genotype Line # Rootless seedlings (% (N)) Defective embryos (% (N)) Columbia WT 1.4 (141) pBDL∷SHY2 2 1.1 (72) 6 0.7 (124) 0.5 (187) pBDL∷shy2-2 5 0 (430) 19 4.4 (280) 20 9.8 (283) 7.1 (70) 22 8.0 (63) 9.7 (124) 24 9.1 (212) 29 27.6 (134) 38 9.4 (112) pBDL∷BDL 38 0 (148) 0 (81) pBDL∷bdl 27 19.4 (66) 21.1 (19) 41 24.6 (61) 32.2 (59) 73 60.8 (51) pBDL∷IAA13 11 2.5 (115) 2.2 (138) pBDL∷iaa13P80S 5 25.2 (283) 25.5 (108) 28 29.6 (68) 38 12.2 (317) 28.3 (53) pIAA13∷IAA13 12 0.9 (94) 17 0.8 (129) pIAA13∷iaa13P80S 4 32.6 (177) 11 23.9 (102) 23 29.0 (62) pIAA13∷BDL 5 0 (131) 8 1.3 (130) pIAA13∷bdl 1 26.2 (166) 7 28.5 (35) 29.4 (68) 30 23.1 (337) 22.8 (206) pSHY2∷shy2-2 11 0 (55) pSHY2∷bdl 4 0 (48) 0.7 (150) 12 0 (30) pSHY2∷iaa13P80S 7 2.5 (38) 1.9 (161) 11 5.0 (20) bdl 22.3 (264) The phenotypic equivalence of bdl and iaa13P80S gain-of-function mutations suggests that the two genes are expressed in a similar way. mRNA in situ hybridization revealed that the IAA13 gene is first transcribed specifically in the globular proembryo, but not the hypophysis (Figure 1D). Later, expression extends basally to the lens-shaped apical daughter cell of the hypophysis (Figure 1D). Finally, IAA13 mRNA accumulation is restricted to the future vascular tissue (Figure 1D). The identical expression pattern was previously detected for BDL (Hamann et al, 2002). IAA13 mRNA expression was unchanged in bdl mutants (Figure 1D), excluding the possibility that IAA13 acts downstream of BDL. Furthermore, IAA13 promoter-GUS fusions revealed that the IAA13 expression pattern is regulated at the level of gene transcription (Figure 1E). In conclusion, the IAA13 gene is a functional paralog of BDL. Aux/IAA specificity in embryogenesis is transcriptionally regulated To assess the relative contributions of transcriptional regulation of Aux/IAA genes and Aux/IAA protein determinants in specificity of action in the embryo, a promoter-swap strategy was adopted. The promoters of BDL or IAA13 were fused to Myc-epitope-tagged genomic coding regions of the SHY2/IAA3, BDL or IAA13 genes. Homologous stabilizing proline to serine domain II mutations (SHY2P69S—shy2-2 (Tian and Reed, 1999); BDLP72S—bdl (Hamann et al, 2002); IAA13P80S) were introduced into each construct, and wild-type versions of the transgenes were analyzed as controls. In accordance with the similar BDL and IAA13 gene activities, pBDL∷iaa13P80S and pIAA13∷bdl plants showed embryonic and postembryonic phenotypes comparable to the bdl and iaa13P80S mutants (Figure 2A; Table I; not shown). Notably, however, whereas shy2-2 mutants have no embryonic phenotypes (Tian and Reed, 1999; Table I), pBDL∷shy2-2 plants showed a rootless phenotype similar to that of bdl (Figure 2A). In addition, pBDL∷shy2-2 plants showed bdl-like postembryonic growth abnormalities (Figure 2B). Although phenotypes were qualitatively similar in all genotypes, the frequency of embryonic phenotypes was significantly lower in pBDL∷shy2-2 plants (Table I). However, Western blot analysis showed that shy2-2, bdl and iaa13P80S proteins accumulated to comparable levels (Figure 2C). These results suggest that the specificity of BDL and IAA13 action in embryogenesis is mainly regulated at the level of gene transcription, but other Aux/IAA proteins may also affect root formation when expressed in the embryo. Figure 2.BDL promoter-swap experiments. (A) Rootless pBDL∷shy2-2 and pBDL∷iaa13P80S homozygous seedlings; inset: pBDL∷bdl seedling. (B) Flowering plants (4 weeks old) are bushy and short; inset: heterozygous bdl plant. (C) Western blots of protein extracts from pBDL∷SHY2, pBDL∷shy2-2, pBDL∷IAA13 and pBDL∷iaa13P80S seedlings. Asterisk: unspecific crossreacting band demonstrating approximately equal loading. Percentage of rootless seedlings (%RL) is indicated for each line. Download figure Download PowerPoint The ARF transcription factor that likely acts in concert with BDL and IAA13 in the embryo is MONOPTEROS (MP)/ARF5 (Hardtke and Berleth, 1998; Hamann et al, 2002). To examine whether the ability to inhibit MP activity reflects the activity of bdl and shy2-2 in the embryo, we developed a heterologous assay for ARF and Aux/IAA activity. A direct repeat of eight ARF-binding DR5(rev) repeat sequences (Ulmasov et al, 1997b) was placed upstream of a minimal promoter for expression in yeast, and this yDR5 (yeast-DR5) promoter was fused to the lacZ gene for β-galactosidase. When HA-epitope-tagged MP cDNA was expressed in yDR5∷lacZ yeast cells, the activity of the reporter was induced several-fold (Figure 3A). Next, HA-epitope-tagged cDNAs of SHY2 or BDL were introduced on the same plasmid as MP:HA. Coexpression of SHY2:HA or BDL:HA with MP:HA nearly completely repressed MP:HA activity (Figure 3A), showing that both proteins can inhibit MP activity. Western blot analysis consistently showed that MP:HA, SHY2:HA and BDL:HA were expressed in yeast, indicating that SHY2 and BDL did not interfere with MP expression. However, SHY2:HA consistently accumulated to higher levels than BDL:HA (Figure 3B), presumably because of cleavage of the BDL:HA protein (not shown). This assay shows that both SHY2 and BDL can directly inhibit MP transcription factor activity in the absence of plant-specific accessory factors, and BDL may be more potent than SHY2. Figure 3.Repression of MP activity by SHY2 and BDL in yeast. (A) Galactosidase activity in yDR5 yeast cells expressing the empty vector (−), MP:HA (MP), MP:HA and SHY2:HA (MP+SHY2) or MP:HA and BDL:HA (MP+BDL). Values (±s.d.) are the average of 12 independent transformants. Asterisks represent statistically significant difference between MP and – (*P<0.001, two-tailed Student's t-test), MP+SHY2 and MP (**P<0.001, two-tailed Student's t-test), and MP+BDL and MP (**P<0.001, two-tailed Student's t-test). (B) Western blot (HA antibody) with equal amounts of protein extracts from three independent yeast transformants for each plasmid. The regions from the same blot that represent MP:HA (105 kDa), SHY2:HA (25 kDa) and BDL:HA (29 kDa) are depicted. Note that expression levels of MP:HA protein vary between different colonies of the same genotype. Download figure Download PowerPoint Aux/IAA specificity in hypocotyl and shoot is transcriptionally regulated Elongation of the seedling hypocotyl involves SHY2-dependent auxin responses (Tian and Reed, 1999; Tian et al, 2002). In contrast, bdl mutants show normal hypocotyl elongation (Hamann et al, 1999). SHY2 is predominantly expressed in cotyledons and hypocotyl including peripheral cell layers whereas BDL expression is largely confined to the central vascular strands (Hamann et al, 2002; Tian et al, 2002). To assess if the specificity of SHY2 action in the hypocotyl is also subject to transcriptional regulation, we expressed Myc-epitope-tagged bdl or iaa13P80S proteins from the SHY2 promoter, and compared their phenotypes with pSHY2∷shy2-2 seedlings. The pSHY2∷shy2-2 construct induced hypocotyl elongation defects in both light- and dark-grown seedlings (Figure 4A), and the severity of defects correlated well with the level of mutant protein accumulation (Figure 4B). By comparison, pSHY2∷bdl and pSHY2∷iaa13P80S seedlings showed a slightly stronger inhibition of hypocotyl elongation (Figure 4A) although mutant proteins accumulated to lower levels than in pSHY2∷shy2-2 seedlings (Figure 4B). These results suggest that, as in embryonic root formation, bdl and iaa13 mutant proteins are more effective than the shy2-2 protein in inhibiting auxin responses. Subsequent shoot development in pSHY2∷shy2-2, pSHY2∷bdl and pSHY2∷ iaa13P80S plants resembled that of shy2-2 mutants (Figure 4C; Tian and Reed, 1999). However, the phenotypes were again quantitatively different between the genotypes. Plants from different pSHY2∷shy2-2 lines showed different phenotypic strengths, ranging from those seen in shy2-2 heterozygotes to those of shy2-2 homozygotes, whereas the phenotypes of the other two transgenic genotypes strongly resembled shy2-2 homozygotes (Figure 4C). Figure 4.Inhibition of auxin responses in the shoot by stabilized Aux/IAA proteins. (A) Hypocotyl length in light-grown (white bars) or dark-grown (black bars) seedlings of wild type (COL), pSHY2∷SHY2, pSHY2∷shy2-2 (lines #27, #6 and #13), pSHY2∷BDL, pSHY2∷bdl (lines #4 and #12), pSHY2∷IAA13, pSHY2∷iaa13P80S (lines #7 and #11) and shy2-2. Hypocotyl length (±s.d.) is represented as percentage of COL. (B) Western blot of protein extracts from light-grown seedlings in (A). Blot was probed with anti-Myc antibodies; asterisk: unspecific crossreacting band demonstrating equal loading. (C) Phenotypes of flowering plants. (D) GUS activity in hypocotyl of seedlings hemizygous for pSHY2∷GUS and pSHY2∷shy2-2, pSHY2∷bdl or wild-type controls from same cross. Seedlings were treated with IAA for 5 h and stained for GUS activity. Download figure Download PowerPoint Aux/IAA proteins act primarily at the level of auxin-dependent gene expression (Tiwari et al, 2001). To test whether this process is similarly affected in pSHY2∷shy2-2 and pSHY2∷bdl seedlings, we analyzed auxin-dependent pSHY2∷GUS activity. In wild-type hypocotyls, pSHY2∷GUS was induced by auxin in the outer cell layers (Figure 4D). This auxin-induced expression was almost completely lost in the hypocotyl of both pSHY2∷shy2-2 and pSHY2∷bdl seedlings (Figure 4D). Thus, SHY2 activity feeds back on SHY2 gene expression, and this function can be taken over by BDL protein, indicating functional equivalence of the two Aux/IAA proteins in this specific auxin response. At similar protein concentrations, bdl appeared to have a stronger effect than did shy2 on the hypocotyl and shoot phenotypes, just as it did for embryo phenotypes. Taken together, these results suggest that specificity of SHY2 action in hypocotyl and shoot is determined by the activity of its promoter, with protein determinants affecting only the extent to which auxin responses are inhibited. Aux/IAA protein specificity in auxin-mediated root development The shy2-2 mutation not only affects auxin responses in hypocotyl and shoot, but also in the root (Tian and Reed, 1999). To examine whether the specificity of SHY2 action in the root is also transcriptionally regulated, we studied root-specific auxin responses in pSHY2∷shy2-2 and pSHY2∷bdl seedlings. Alignment of the root tip with a changing gravity vector requires auxin response, and this response is strongly diminished in shy2-2 as well as in pSHY2∷shy2-2 roots (Tian and Reed, 1999; Figure 5A). Surprisingly, roots of pSHY2∷bdl seedlings responded almost normally to gravity although their hypocotyls displayed strong inhibition of elongation (Figure 5A, compare with Figure 4A). Similarly, although root growth was comparably reduced in both pSHY2∷shy2-2 and pSHY2∷bdl seedlings under normal conditions, the two genotypes differed in their response to the growth-inhibiting effects of auxin (Figure 5B). Whereas pSHY2∷bdl root growth was sensitive, shy2-2 and pSHY2∷shy2-2 root growth was partially resistant (Figure 5B). This difference in auxin response between pSHY2∷shy2-2 and pSHY2∷bdl roots must lie in the shy2-2 and bdl proteins themselves because both are expressed in the root (Figure 5C). Figure 5.Inhibition of auxin responses in the root by shy2-2, but not by bdl. (A) Gravitropic response of pSHY2∷SHY2, pSHY2∷shy2-2, pSHY2∷BDL and pSHY2∷bdl seedlings after reorientation by 90° (data from two to five independent transgenic lines for each genotype). The percentages represent the fraction of seedlings (numbers analyzed in parentheses) with normal gravitropic response. (B) Inhibition of root growth by 2,4-D. Root length (±s.d.) was measured after 3 days of vertical growth on medium with (black bars) or without (white bars) 0.1 μM 2,4-D. Growth is represented as percentage of root length in wild type (COL) on control media. (C) Western blots of protein extracts from IAA-treated (10 μM for 5 h) or untreated roots of pSHY2∷SHY2, pSHY2∷shy2-2, pSHY2∷BDL and pSHY2∷bdl seedlings. Asterisks: unspecific crossreaction as loading control. Note that SHY2 or BDL accumulation is induced by auxin in pSHY2∷SHY2, pSHY2∷BDL and pSHY2∷bdl, but not in pSHY2∷shy2-2. (D) GUS activity in root tips of F1 seedlings from crosses between hemizygous pSHY2∷shy2-2 or pSHY2∷bdl lines and homozygous pSHY2∷GUS or pDR5(7x)∷GUS lines. Controls (WT) are wild-type segregants from the same cross. −IAA, untreated; +IAA, 10 μM IAA for 5 h. GUS staining time was 3 h for untreated and 1.5 h for IAA-treated roots. Download figure Download PowerPoint As in the hypocotyl, auxin responses in the root involve changes in gene expression. The shy2-2 mutation and pSHY2∷shy2-2 prevented the auxin-induced expression of pSHY2∷GUS and pDR5(7x)∷GUS (Figure 5D; Tian et al, 2002). In contrast, pSHY2∷bdl roots showed normal auxin-induced expression of both reporters (Figure 5D). The noninduced expression in the root vascular tissues and the distal tip was similarly affected in both pSHY2∷shy2-2 and pSHY2∷bdl (Figure 5D). In summary, bdl did not regulate auxin-induced gene expression or gravitropism in roots, even when present at similar protein levels to levels of shy2-2 that have a strong effect on these phenotypes. These results indicate that shy2-2 is effective in inhibiting auxin-mediated root development whereas bdl is not, which is in contrast to the stronger activity of bdl in embryo development, auxin response in the hypocotyl, and shoot and root growth. ARF7 and ARF19 as targets of Aux/IAA inhibition in auxin-mediated root development Aux/IAA proteins inhibit auxin responses through interactions with ARF transcription factors (Tiwari et al, 2003). Hence, a plausible explanation for the differential effects of pSHY2∷shy2-2 and pSHY2∷bdl on auxin-dependent root development would be that shy2-2, but not bdl, interacts with a yet unidentified ARF that regulates these auxin responses. To date, no arf mutant has been reported to have root phenotypes that resemble shy2-2. We took a candidate approach to identify ARF protein(s) involved in auxin-dependent root development. Initially, we analyzed double mutants for ARF10 and ARF16, two closely related genes (Remington et al, 2004) that are highly expressed in elongating root epidermis cells (Birnbaum et al, 2003). These double mutants showed normal gravitropism and auxin response in the primary root (not shown). Thus, ARF10 and ARF16 are unlikely to be targets of shy2-2 inhibition. The NPH4/ARF7 gene is required for shoot tropisms, but the nph4 mutant has no root gravitropism defect (Liscum and Briggs, 1996; Watahiki and Yamamoto, 1997; Tatematsu et al, 2004; Figure 6A). However, the ARF19 gene is highly related to NPH4 (Remington et al, 2004), and it has recently been shown that ARF19 acts redundantly with NPH4 in plant growth, including gravi- and phototropism in seedlings (Okushima et al, 2005). To test whether ARF19 regulates the same responses that are disturbed in shy2-2 mutants, two mutant alleles of ARF19 were tested. One of these, arf19-4, has a weak but significant phenotype in auxin-mediated root development. Gravitropic response as well as growth sensitivity to 2,4-D is impaired (Figure 6A and B). An nph4-1 arf19-4 double mutant, however, was severely impaired in gravitropism (Figure 6A) and also showed nearly complete auxin-resistant root growth (Figure 6B). Correspondingly, auxin-induced SHY2 gene expression was partially impaired in each single mutant, and nearly completely lost in the nph4-1 arf19-4 double mutant (Figure 6C). These results suggest that NPH4 and ARF19 act redundantly in auxin responses in the primary root tip, and are therefore good candidates for targets of inhibition by shy2-2. Figure 6.NPH4 and ARF19 as targets for shy2 inhibition in the root. (A) Gravitropic response of wild-type (COL), nph4-1, arf19-4 and nph4-1 arf19-4 seedling roots (numbers analyzed in parentheses) upon reorientation by 90°. (B) Inhibition of root growth by 2,4-D. Root length (±s.d.) was measured after 3 days of vertical growth on medium with (black bars) or without (white bars) 0.1 μM 2,4-D. Growth is represented as percentage of root length in wild type (COL) on control media. (C) SHY2 mRNA expression in COL, nph4-1, arf19-4 and nph4-1 arf19-4 seedlings treated with unsupplemented medium (white bars) or with medium containing 50 μM IAA (black bars) for 3 h. Average values (±s.d.) are taken from five to six replicate real-time PCR reactions (quantitative RT–PCR); inset: semiquantitative RT–PCR experiment on dissected roots from three replicates. Expression is relative to ACT2 expression in the same cDNA samples. (D) Interaction of SHY2 or BDL with MP and ARF19 in yeast two-hybrid assays. Galactosidase activity (±s.d.) was measured in at least 12 independent colonies expressing each of the depicted plasmids (−, empty vector control). Download figure Download PowerPoint Yeast two-hybrid assays were performed to test whether ARF7 and ARF19 can be targets for SHY2 action in the root, and whe