Article15 November 1999free access Activation of p53 by conjugation to the ubiquitin-like protein SUMO-1 Monica Gostissa Monica Gostissa Laboratorio Nazionale, Consorzio Interuniversitario Biotecnologie, AREA Science Park, Padriciano 99, 34012 Trieste, Italy Search for more papers by this author Arnd Hengstermann Arnd Hengstermann Laboratorio Nazionale, Consorzio Interuniversitario Biotecnologie, AREA Science Park, Padriciano 99, 34012 Trieste, Italy Search for more papers by this author Valentina Fogal Valentina Fogal Laboratorio Nazionale, Consorzio Interuniversitario Biotecnologie, AREA Science Park, Padriciano 99, 34012 Trieste, Italy Search for more papers by this author Peter Sandy Peter Sandy Laboratorio Nazionale, Consorzio Interuniversitario Biotecnologie, AREA Science Park, Padriciano 99, 34012 Trieste, Italy Search for more papers by this author Sylvia E. Schwarz Sylvia E. Schwarz Deutsches Krebsforschungszentrum, Angewandte Tumorvirologie, Im Neuenheimer Feld 242, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany Search for more papers by this author Martin Scheffner Martin Scheffner Deutsches Krebsforschungszentrum, Angewandte Tumorvirologie, Im Neuenheimer Feld 242, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany Search for more papers by this author Giannino Del Sal Corresponding Author Giannino Del Sal Laboratorio Nazionale, Consorzio Interuniversitario Biotecnologie, AREA Science Park, Padriciano 99, 34012 Trieste, Italy Dipartimento di Biochimica, Biofisica e Chimica delle Macromolecole, Università degli Studi di Trieste, Via L. Giorgeri 1, 34100 Trieste, Italy Search for more papers by this author Monica Gostissa Monica Gostissa Laboratorio Nazionale, Consorzio Interuniversitario Biotecnologie, AREA Science Park, Padriciano 99, 34012 Trieste, Italy Search for more papers by this author Arnd Hengstermann Arnd Hengstermann Laboratorio Nazionale, Consorzio Interuniversitario Biotecnologie, AREA Science Park, Padriciano 99, 34012 Trieste, Italy Search for more papers by this author Valentina Fogal Valentina Fogal Laboratorio Nazionale, Consorzio Interuniversitario Biotecnologie, AREA Science Park, Padriciano 99, 34012 Trieste, Italy Search for more papers by this author Peter Sandy Peter Sandy Laboratorio Nazionale, Consorzio Interuniversitario Biotecnologie, AREA Science Park, Padriciano 99, 34012 Trieste, Italy Search for more papers by this author Sylvia E. Schwarz Sylvia E. Schwarz Deutsches Krebsforschungszentrum, Angewandte Tumorvirologie, Im Neuenheimer Feld 242, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany Search for more papers by this author Martin Scheffner Martin Scheffner Deutsches Krebsforschungszentrum, Angewandte Tumorvirologie, Im Neuenheimer Feld 242, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany Search for more papers by this author Giannino Del Sal Corresponding Author Giannino Del Sal Laboratorio Nazionale, Consorzio Interuniversitario Biotecnologie, AREA Science Park, Padriciano 99, 34012 Trieste, Italy Dipartimento di Biochimica, Biofisica e Chimica delle Macromolecole, Università degli Studi di Trieste, Via L. Giorgeri 1, 34100 Trieste, Italy Search for more papers by this author Author Information Monica Gostissa1, Arnd Hengstermann1, Valentina Fogal1, Peter Sandy1, Sylvia E. Schwarz2, Martin Scheffner2 and Giannino Del Sal 1,3 1Laboratorio Nazionale, Consorzio Interuniversitario Biotecnologie, AREA Science Park, Padriciano 99, 34012 Trieste, Italy 2Deutsches Krebsforschungszentrum, Angewandte Tumorvirologie, Im Neuenheimer Feld 242, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany 3Dipartimento di Biochimica, Biofisica e Chimica delle Macromolecole, Università degli Studi di Trieste, Via L. Giorgeri 1, 34100 Trieste, Italy *Corresponding author. E-mail: [email protected] The EMBO Journal (1999)18:6462-6471https://doi.org/10.1093/emboj/18.22.6462 PDFDownload PDF of article text and main figures. ToolsAdd to favoritesDownload CitationsTrack CitationsPermissions ShareFacebookTwitterLinked InMendeleyWechatReddit Figures & Info The growth-suppressive properties of p53 are controlled by posttranslational modifications and by regulation of its turnover rate. Here we show that p53 can be modified in vitro and in vivo by conjugation to the small ubiquitin-like protein SUMO-1. A lysine residue at amino acid position 386 of p53 is required for this previously undescribed modification, strongly suggesting that this lysine residue serves as the major attachment site for SUMO-1. Unlike ubiquitin, attachment of SUMO-1 does not appear to target proteins for rapid degradation but rather, has been proposed to change the ability of the modified protein to interact with other cellular proteins. Accordingly, we provide evidence that conjugation of SUMO-1 to wild-type p53 results in an increased transactivation ability of p53. We suggest that posttranslational modification of p53 by SUMO-1 conjugation provides a novel mechanism to regulate p53 activity. Introduction The development of neoplasia correlates with functional inactivation of the p53 tumor suppressor in half of the human cancers (Hollstein et al., 1996). p53 is a transcription factor that can inhibit cell cycle progression and/or induce apoptosis. Loss of wild-type (wt) p53 function, therefore, leads to deregulated cell proliferation, resulting in genomic instability and eventually in the development of malignant lesions (Ko and Prives, 1996; Levine, 1997). In normal cells, p53 has a short half-life and is expressed at low levels. Furthermore, it is maintained in a latent form but rapidly accumulates and is activated under various stress conditions, including DNA damage, ribonucleotide depletion or generation of reactive oxygen species. The exact mechanism(s) mediating p53 response to these environmental signals is not yet fully understood, but there is accumulating evidence that activation of p53 is mainly achieved by posttranslational modifications in the N- and C-terminal regions of the protein (reviewed in Giaccia and Kastan, 1998). The N-terminal region of p53 contains the transactivation domain that mediates the interaction with the basal transcription machinery (Lu and Levine, 1995; Thut et al., 1995), and is also required for p53 degradation (Prives, 1998). It has been demonstrated that this region binds to the proto-oncoprotein Mdm2 (Kussie et al., 1996), resulting in transcriptional silencing (Momand et al., 1992), and, as shown more recently, in ubiquitin/proteasome-dependent degradation of p53 (Haupt et al., 1997; Honda et al., 1997; Kubbutat et al., 1997). Furthermore, there is evidence to suggest that the phosphorylation status of the N-terminus is involved in p53 stability regulation (Shieh et al., 1997; Khanna et al., 1998; Unger et al., 1999). Stabilization of the protein does not appear to be the only event required for p53 activation since, at least in some cases, p53-dependent transcription can be stimulated without increase in the protein level (Hupp et al., 1995). The C-terminus seems to play a crucial role in controlling the transcriptional properties of p53. Posttranslational modifications in this domain have been shown to mediate the conversion of the protein from an inert to an active form capable of sequence-specific DNA binding (Hupp and Lane, 1994). Such modifications can be induced by DNA damage and include not only phosphorylation and dephosphorylation (Waterman et al., 1998) but also acetylation and glycosylation (Shaw et al., 1996; Gu and Roeder, 1997). However, the C-terminus may also be involved in modulating the stability of the protein, since deletion of the last 30 amino acids results in a p53 molecule that is still bound by Mdm2 but is refractory to Mdm2-mediated degradation (Kubbutat et al., 1998). A number of ubiquitin-related proteins have recently been identified (Hodges et al., 1998), including the small ubiquitin-related modifier SUMO-1, which has been reported to be covalently linked to proteins such as RanGAP1, IκBα, Sp100 and PML (Mahajan et al., 1997; Sternsdorf et al., 1997; Desterro et al., 1998). Although the sequence similarity between ubiquitin and SUMO-1 is low (Saitoh et al., 1997), the general mechanism of conjugation is very similar but utilizes different enzymes (Hodges et al., 1998). In contrast to ubiquitination, however, 'sumolation' of a protein does not appear to target it for rapid degradation but rather affects the ability of the modified protein to interact with other cellular factors. For example, covalent modification of RanGAP1 by SUMO-1 affects its subcellular localization and contributes to nuclear pore complex formation (Mahajan et al., 1997; Matunis et al., 1998). In the case of IκBα (Baldwin, 1996), a well established substrate of the ubiquitin/proteasome system, it has been reported that SUMO-1 competes for the lysine residue involved in ubiquitin coupling, providing a possible model for regulation of IκBα degradation (Desterro et al., 1998). PML and Sp100 are important SUMO-1 conjugated components of the so-called nuclear dots or nuclear bodies (Boddy et al., 1996; Sternsdorf et al., 1997), which are targeted for destruction by immediate early proteins of different DNA viruses at an early stage of infection (Chelbi-Alix and de The, 1999; Muller and Dejean, 1999), suggesting a crucial role for these subnuclear structures in the viral life cycle and more generally in cell proliferation control. Here we demonstrate that SUMO-1 is conjugated to p53 in vitro and in vivo and that this covalent modification takes place at the C-terminus of p53 involving a specific lysine residue at position 386. Moreover, we provide evidence that sumolation enhances the transactivation ability of p53. Thus, covalent linkage to SUMO-1 represents a potential novel mechanism to regulate p53 activity. Results Isolation of SUMO-1 as a candidate p53 interacting protein To isolate proteins that interact with p53, the yeast two-hybrid system (Gyuris et al., 1993) was employed using human wt p53 (LexAp53wtΔ74) as a bait. Screening of ∼3 million colonies of a fetal brain cDNA library resulted in the isolation of 24 individual clones showing strong and specific interaction with the bait. Sequence analysis of one of the more representative (20%) clones revealed that it encodes the ubiquitin-related protein SUMO-1 (Boddy et al., 1996; Mahajan et al., 1997). Similar to ubiquitin, SUMO-1 is found in two forms in cells, covalently attached to other proteins and as a free molecule. The enzymes involved in SUMO-1 conjugation have recently been identified. In humans these are Sua1 and hUba2, which form a dimer and, in analogy to the ubiquitin-conjugation system, represent the SUMO-activating enzyme E1 (Desterro et al., 1999; Okuma et al., 1999) and hUbc9, which represents the SUMO-conjugating enzyme E2 (Lee et al., 1998; Schwarz et al., 1998). Interestingly, hUbc9 has previously been reported to interact with p53 in yeast (Shen et al., 1996) and, indeed, we also isolated several clones corresponding to this enzyme. To further characterize the interaction of p53 with SUMO-1 and hUbc9 in yeast, we used a tumor-derived mutant of p53 (LexAp53H175Δ74) that is conformationally distorted and, as a consequence, has lost the sequence-specific DNA binding properties of wt p53. This revealed that a wt-like conformation is not required for p53 to interact with hUbc9 and SUMO-1. Next, we constructed different LexAp53 deletion mutants to map the region of p53 that is required for the binding. As represented schematically in Figure 1, the interaction with both proteins requires the C-terminal 55 amino acids of p53. Figure 1.SUMO-1 and hUbc9 interact with p53 in yeast. (A) The different LexA-p53 fusions employed are represented on the left side. p53 domains are indicated: (■) DNA binding domain; () oligomerization and unspecific DNA binding domains. '+' indicates positive interaction, as judged by β-galactosidase activity and ability to grow in the absence of leucine; '−' indicates no detectable interaction. (B) Lysates from cells grown in the absence (−) or in the presence (+) of galactose were analyzed by Western blotting to confirm the expression of the bait (anti-LexA, upper panels) and the fish (anti-HA, lower panels) proteins in the strains used for the interaction assays. The bands corresponding to B42–SUMO-1 and B42–hUbc9 as well as the running position of molecular weight markers are indicated. Download figure Download PowerPoint SUMO-1 is conjugated to p53 in vitro Since other known substrates for SUMO-1 conjugation have been reported to interact with both SUMO-1 and hUbc9 in the yeast two-hybrid system (Boddy et al., 1996; Desterro et al., 1998), we investigated whether p53 may also be a substrate of the SUMO-1 modification pathway. p53 was generated in rabbit reticulocyte lysate in the presence of [35S]methionine and incubated in the presence or absence of mouse Ubc9 (mUbc9) (identical to human Ubc9 at the amino acid sequence level), a partially purified protein fraction containing the SUMO-activating enzyme E1, and a GST–SUMO-1 fusion protein (Schwarz et al., 1998). Under the reaction conditions used, a slower migrating form of p53 was observed (Figure 2A, left panel). Since the appearance of this form was dependent on the presence of E1, mUbc9 and GST–SUMO-1, it can be concluded that this form represents p53 molecules modified by the covalent attachment of one moiety of SUMO-1, as judged by its molecular weight. Furthermore, the conjugation of SUMO-1 appeared to be specific for p53 in that HHR23a, a protein that is not related to p53 (Masutani et al., 1994), was not modified under the same assay conditions (Figure 2A, right panel). Figure 2.p53 is a substrate for SUMO-1 conjugation in vitro. (A) In vitro translated 35S-labeled p53 was incubated in the presence (+) or in the absence (−) of the indicated components. After 2 h at 30°C, reactions were stopped and the whole reaction mixtures were separated by SDS–PAGE followed by fluorography. The bands corresponding to free and SUMO-conjugated p53 (left panel) and the running position of molecular weight markers are indicated. As a negative control, the p53 unrelated protein HHR23a was used (right panel). (B) In vitro translated 35S-labeled p53 mutants, with lysine to arginine substitutions at the indicated positions (p53K381/82R, p53K386R, p53K381/82/86R) were tested for SUMO-1 conjugation in vitro as described in (A). The amino acid sequence of the C-terminal region of the various mutants is shown above. Download figure Download PowerPoint The lysine residue at position 386 of p53 is required for SUMO-1 modification Based on the results obtained in the yeast two-hybrid system, it seemed possible that the C-terminal 55 amino acids of p53 contain all the information that is necessary for p53 to be recognized by the SUMO-1 conjugation system. Indeed, N-terminal deletion mutants of p53 (deletion of the N-terminal 43 amino acids and 293 amino acids, respectively) served as substrates for SUMO-1 conjugation with an efficiency similar to wt p53, while deletion of the C-terminal 30 amino acids resulted in a protein that was not modified by SUMO-1 (data not shown). It is also worth noting that, similar to the results obtained in yeast, a wt-like conformation is not required for the covalent attachment of SUMO-1 to p53 in this in vitro system. To map the lysine residues of p53 that serve as potential attachment sites for SUMO-1, we utilized additional C-terminal deletion mutants of p53. This revealed that removal of the C-terminal 10 amino acids is sufficient to render p53 incompetent for conjugation (data not shown) indicating that a lysine residue within this region, or close to it, may serve as the major attachment site for SUMO-1. The most C-terminal lysine residues of p53 are located at position 381, 382 and 386 (Figure 2B). Therefore, p53 mutants were constructed in which these three residues were changed to arginine in various combinations, and tested for their ability to serve as a substrate for SUMO-1 conjugation. As shown in Figure 2B, mutation of lysine residue 386 results in a protein that cannot be modified by SUMO-1 in vitro. In contrast, mutation of Lys 381 and 382, which have been shown to be preferential sites for acetylation (Gu and Roeder, 1997), did not affect the ability of the respective p53 mutant to be modified. Taken together, our results show that p53 is a substrate for SUMO-1 conjugation in vitro. Furthermore, the lysine at position 386 of p53 is required for this modification indicating that this residue serves as the major attachment site for SUMO-1. p53 is covalently modified by SUMO-1 in vivo To obtain evidence that p53 is also modified by SUMO-1 in human cells, we performed a Western blot analysis on total lysates from 293 cells. As shown in Figure 3A, a slower migrating p53 form was recognized by the anti-p53 monoclonal antibody DO-1. To determine whether this form represents p53 molecules conjugated to SUMO-1, lysates from the same cell line were first immunoprecipitated with a polyclonal antibody against p53 or with pre-immune serum as a negative control. Subsequently, the immunocomplexes were analyzed by Western blotting with an anti-SUMO-1 monoclonal antibody. This revealed that a protein of the expected molecular weight (∼70 kDa) was specifically recognized in the anti-p53 immunoprecipitate (Figure 3B, left panel). Finally, the same membrane was stripped and reprobed with the DO-1 antibody to demonstrate that the SUMO-1 crossreactive protein was indeed a modified p53 form (Figure 3B, right panel). Figure 3.Endogenous p53 is modified by SUMO-1 in vivo. (A) 293 cells were directly lysed in SDS-containing sample buffer and samples were analyzed by SDS–PAGE followed by Western blotting using the anti-p53 monoclonal antibody DO-1. The positions of free and putative SUMO-1 conjugated p53 are indicated. Molecular weight markers are shown on the left. (B) Lysates from 293 cells were immuno- precipitated with a polyclonal antiserum raised against human p53 (α-p53) or with pre-immune serum (PreI) as a negative control. Subsequently, immunoprecipitates were analyzed by Western blotting with an anti-SUMO-1 monoclonal antibody (left panel). The same membrane was then stripped and reprobed with DO-1 (right panel). Running position of molecular weight markers and of SUMO-1 conjugated p53 are indicated. Download figure Download PowerPoint The apparent molecular weight of the immunoprecipitated protein is consistent with the addition of a single SUMO-1 molecule to one p53 molecule. This finding is in agreement with the in vitro data presented above, as well as with previous observations that SUMO-1 modification usually takes place on specific single acceptor sites (Desterro et al., 1998; Mahajan et al., 1998) and that, unlike ubiquitin, poly-SUMO-1 chains are not, or are only very inefficiently, formed (Hodges et al., 1998). SUMO-1 conjugation to p53 in vivo requires lysine 386 To demonstrate that the p53 lysine residue at position 386 is also essential for in vivo SUMO-1 conjugation, we generated constructs encoding tagged SUMO-1 proteins by cloning the entire SUMO-1 ORF fused to either the green fluorescent protein (GFP–SUMO-1) or the HA epitope (HA–SUMO-1). The ability of these fusion proteins to be efficiently conjugated to cellular proteins was then tested in transient transfection experiments followed by Western blot analysis using antibodies against SUMO-1, the HA-tag or the GFP-tag of the respective fusion protein. Consistent with previous reports (Schwarz et al., 1998), a high molecular weight smear was observed (data not shown), which indicates that several cellular proteins were covalently modified by conjugation to the tagged SUMO-1. Moreover, both fusion proteins were demonstrated to colocalize with the previously reported SUMO-1 substrates Sp100 and PML (Sternsdorf et al., 1997; not shown). Having shown that GFP–SUMO-1 can be conjugated to cellular proteins, pGFPSUMO-1 was transiently transfected into the p53-null cell line SaOS-2, together with a vector expressing wt p53 (pcDNA3p53wt) or the K386R mutant (pRcCMVp53K386R). At 36 h after transfection, the cells were lysed in SDS sample buffer and analyzed by Western blotting using the p53-specific antibody DO-1. When wt p53 was coexpressed with GFP–SUMO-1 (Figure 4A, lane 3), a more slowly migrating band was visible and its molecular weight (∼100 kDa) was consistent with a form of p53 that is covalently modified by GFP–SUMO-1. In contrast, when the p53 mutant (p53K386R), which is not conjugated in vitro, was used, no shifted p53-crossreactive band was observed (Figure 4A, lane 5). Similar results were also obtained in Balb/c(10)1 fibroblasts (not shown). Figure 4.Lysine 386 is required for SUMO-1 conjugation to p53 in vivo. (A) SaOS-2 cells were seeded in 6 cm diameter Petri dishes and transfected with 1 μg of p53 expression plasmids and 2 μg of pGFPSUMO-1 or empty pGFP. Total extracts were prepared by direct lysis in SDS sample buffer, resolved by SDS–PAGE and analyzed by Western blotting using the anti-p53-specific antibody DO-1. Positions of molecular weight markers, free p53 and putative p53/GFP–SUMO-1 conjugates are indicated. (B) Lysates from SaOS-2 cells transfected with 4 μg of p53 expression plasmids and 10 μg of pGFP or pGFP-SUMO-1 as indicated were immunoprecipitated with an anti-GFP polyclonal antibody and immunoprecipitates were subjected to Western blot analysis using the DO-1 antibody (upper panel). An aliquot of each lysate was checked for the expression of the transfected plasmids by staining with DO-1 (middle panel) or anti-GFP (lower panel) antibodies. Running positions of molecular weight markers and of the various proteins are indicated. Download figure Download PowerPoint To demonstrate directly that the higher band observed in the above experiment corresponds to p53 covalently linked to GFP–SUMO-1, SaOS-2 cells were transiently transfected with wt p53 together with GFP–SUMO-1 or with GFP. Cell lysates were immunoprecipitated with an anti-GFP polyclonal antibody and then blotted with DO-1. As shown in Figure 4B (upper panel), a 100 kDa p53-reactive band was specifically immunoprecipitated by the anti-GFP antibody but only when GFP–SUMO-1 was coexpressed (Figure 4B, lane 2). In contrast, no GFP–SUMO-1-linked p53 was detected when the conjugation-deficient mutant K386R was employed (Figure 4B, lane 4). Taken together, these results demonstrate that p53 can be covalently modified by SUMO-1 in vitro and in vivo. Furthermore, the Lys386 residue identified in in vitro experiments is also required for SUMO-1 modification in vivo. The C-terminal region of p53 is sufficient to be targeted by SUMO-1 conjugation in vivo The results obtained in the yeast two-hybrid system and the in vitro sumolation assay indicated that the C-terminus of p53 may be sufficient for recognition as a substrate for SUMO-1 modification. To test if this domain is also sufficient in mediating the conjugation in vivo, we ectopically expressed a construct encoding the last 100 amino acids of p53, in fusion with the HA epitope (pcDNA3HAp53Ct), together with HA–SUMO-1. The p53Ct protein contains p53 nuclear localization signals and is efficiently localized to the nucleus (not shown). Cell lysates were immunoprecipitated with an anti-p53 polyclonal antibody and subsequently analyzed by Western blotting with anti-HA and anti-SUMO-1 antibodies. As shown in Figure 5, in total lysates (upper panel, lane 2) as well as in immunoprecipitates (upper panel, lane 4) from cells expressing HA–SUMO-1, a slower migrating HA-crossreactive band was present. When the membrane was stripped and reprobed, the same band was recognized by the anti-SUMO-1 specific antibody (Figure 5, lower panel, lanes 2 and 4). No protein was detected with either of the antibodies in pcDNA3HA control transfected cells (Figure 5, lanes 1 and 3). Thus, the C-terminal region of p53 is likely to be sufficient for recognition as a substrate by the SUMO-1 conjugation pathway. However, a role of other domains of the protein in modulating the efficiency of the modification cannot be excluded. Finally, it should be noted that a wt-like conformation of the full-length p53 does not appear to be required for in vivo sumolation, since the tumor-derived mutant p53R175H was also linked to GFP–SUMO-1 in cells (data not shown). Figure 5.The C-terminal region of p53 is sufficient for SUMO-1 conjugation. Total extracts (lanes 1 and 2) and anti-p53 immunoprecipitates (lanes 3 and 4) from U2OS cells transfected with 4 μg of pcDNA3HAp53Ct (encoding amino acids from 294 to 393) together with 10 μg of empty pcDNA3HA vector or pcDNA3HASUMO-1 were analyzed by Western blotting with anti-HA (upper panel) or anti-SUMO-1 (lower panel) specific antibodies. Running positions of molecular weight markers and the positions of free p53Ct and HA–SUMO-1 as well as of the conjugated proteins are indicated. Download figure Download PowerPoint SUMO-1 modification enhances p53-dependent transactivation Recent results point to the important role of the C-terminus in p53 degradation (Kubbutat et al., 1998) and functional activation (Hupp and Lane, 1994). Furthermore, posttranslational modification of the C-terminal 30 amino acids by phosphorylation (Hupp et al., 1992) or acetylation (Gu and Roeder, 1997) has been demonstrated to modulate the ability of p53 to bind DNA and to exert its function as a transcriptional activator. Therefore, it was of interest to determine whether the conjugation of SUMO-1 to the C-terminal region of p53 affects its transactivation capacity. To test this possibility, a luciferase reporter construct containing the p21 promoter (p21-Luc; el-Deiry et al., 1993) was transfected into U2OS cells, which contain endogenous wt p53, together with the empty pcDNA3HA vector or with increasing amounts of pcDNA3HASUMO-1. As shown in Figure 6A, HA–SUMO-1 overexpression enhanced luciferase activity from the p21 reporter up to 3-fold and this increase correlated with the amount of overexpressed protein, as detected by Western blot analysis (Figure 6A, lower panel). Reporter activity from a plasmid lacking p53 binding sites was not affected by HA–SUMO-1 overexpression (data not shown). Similar results were obtained with GFP–SUMO-1 (not shown). This indicates that sumolation of p53 increases its transcriptional activity. Figure 6.SUMO-1 conjugation enhances p53 transcriptional activity. (A) Luciferase assays were performed on lysates from U2OS cells transfected with a p21-Luc reporter plasmid together with empty vector or increasing amounts of pcDNA3HASUMO-1, as indicated. In addition, 100 ng of pGFPC1 were cotransfected to monitor the efficiency of transfection. An aliquot of the lysates was analyzed by Western blotting with anti-HA antibody to confirm the expression of the transfected HA–SUMO-1 and with anti-GFP antibody to evaluate the efficiency of transfection (lower panels). (B) Balb/c(10)1 fibroblasts were transfected with the p21-Luc reporter, pcDNA3p53wt () or pRcCMVp53K386R (■) or empty pcDNA3HA vector (), either with or without HA–SUMO-1. Luciferase assay was performed as in (A). An aliquot of each lysate was analyzed by Western blotting using the DO-1 antibody to demonstrate comparable levels of expression of p53 in all the samples. The same membrane was subsequently probed with an anti-actin antibody to estimate the total amount of protein loaded in each lane (lower panels). (C) U2OS (left part) or Balb/c(10)1 (right part) cells were transfected with the indicated plasmids and lysates were subjected to luciferase assay. An aliquot of the lysates was analyzed by Western blotting as described in (A) (left part) and (B) (right part), respectively. In all cases, graphs represent the mean of at least three independent experiments. Standard deviations are indicated. Download figure Download PowerPoint To obtain further evidence that the observed increase of p21-Luc activity was due to SUMO-1 modification of p53, p21-Luc was transfected into p53-null Balb/c(10)1 fibroblasts together with vectors expressing either wt p53 or the conjugation-deficient mutant p53K386R. The basal levels of luciferase activity obtained with the two proteins were comparable (Figure 6B, bars 1 and 3). However, when HA–SUMO-1 was coexpressed, a significant increase in the activation of the reporter was observed only in cells expressing wt p53 (Figure 6B, bars 1 and 2), with the activity of the mutant protein being unaffected by HA–SUMO-1 (Figure 6B, bars 3 and 4). As a control, the basal activity of the p21-Luc reporter in the absence of p53 (Figure 6B, bars 5 and 6) did not significantly change following HA–SUMO-1 overexpression. To exclude the possibility that the different activities observed for wt p53 and the K386R mutant were not due to variations in expression levels, an aliquot of the lysates was subjected to Western blot analysis using the monoclonal antibody DO-1. As shown in Figure 6B (lower panel), p53 expression levels were comparable under the conditions used. Since Ubc9 is the E2 enzyme that mediates SUMO-1 conjugation, we tested the possibility that hUbc9 overexpression enhances the transactivation capacity of p53 by increasing the fraction of p53 modified by endogenous SUMO-1. Therefore, luciferase assays were performed with lysates from U2OS cells transfected with p21-Luc and increasing amounts of pcDNA3HAhUbc9. As for HA–SUMO-1, HA–hUbc9 overexpression resulted in enhanced reporter activity (Figure 6C). Also in this case, the observed effect was most likely directly dependent on the presence of conjugation-competent p53, since no increase in luciferase activity was obtained when HA–hUbc9 was coexpressed