Hyperphosphorylation of the microtubule-associated protein tau is a characteristic feature of neurodegenerative tauopathies including Alzheimer disease. Over-activation of proline-directed kinases, such as cyclin-dependent kinase 5 (Cdk5) and glycogen synthase kinase 3 (GSK3), has been implicated in the aberrant phosphorylation of tau at proline-directed sites. In this study we tested the roles of Cdk5 and GSK3 in tau hyperphosphorylation in vivo using transgenic mice with p25-induced Cdk5 over-activation. We found that over-activation of Cdk5 in young transgenic animals does not induce tau hyperphosphorylation at sites recognized by the antibodies AT8, AT100, PHF-1, and TG3. In fact, we observed that Cdk5 over-activation leads to inhibition of GSK3. However, in old transgenic animals the inhibition of GSK3 is lost and results in increased GSK3 activity, which coincides with tau hyperphosphorylation at the AT8 and PHF-1 sites. Pharmacological inhibition of GSK3 in old transgenic mice by chronic treatment with lithium leads to a reduction of the age-dependent increase in tau hyperphosphorylation. Furthermore, we found that Cdk5, GSK3, and PP2A co-immunoprecipitate, suggesting a functional association of these molecules. Together, these results reveal the role of GSK3 as a key mediator of tau hyperphosphorylation, whereas Cdk5 acts as a modulator of tau hyperphosphorylation via the inhibitory regulation of GSK3. Furthermore, these findings suggest that disruption of regulation of GSK3 activity underlies tau hyperphosphorylation in neurodegenerative tauopathies. Hence, GSK3 may be a prime target for therapeutic intervention in tauopathies including Alzheimer disease. Hyperphosphorylation of the microtubule-associated protein tau is a characteristic feature of neurodegenerative tauopathies including Alzheimer disease. Over-activation of proline-directed kinases, such as cyclin-dependent kinase 5 (Cdk5) and glycogen synthase kinase 3 (GSK3), has been implicated in the aberrant phosphorylation of tau at proline-directed sites. In this study we tested the roles of Cdk5 and GSK3 in tau hyperphosphorylation in vivo using transgenic mice with p25-induced Cdk5 over-activation. We found that over-activation of Cdk5 in young transgenic animals does not induce tau hyperphosphorylation at sites recognized by the antibodies AT8, AT100, PHF-1, and TG3. In fact, we observed that Cdk5 over-activation leads to inhibition of GSK3. However, in old transgenic animals the inhibition of GSK3 is lost and results in increased GSK3 activity, which coincides with tau hyperphosphorylation at the AT8 and PHF-1 sites. Pharmacological inhibition of GSK3 in old transgenic mice by chronic treatment with lithium leads to a reduction of the age-dependent increase in tau hyperphosphorylation. Furthermore, we found that Cdk5, GSK3, and PP2A co-immunoprecipitate, suggesting a functional association of these molecules. Together, these results reveal the role of GSK3 as a key mediator of tau hyperphosphorylation, whereas Cdk5 acts as a modulator of tau hyperphosphorylation via the inhibitory regulation of GSK3. Furthermore, these findings suggest that disruption of regulation of GSK3 activity underlies tau hyperphosphorylation in neurodegenerative tauopathies. Hence, GSK3 may be a prime target for therapeutic intervention in tauopathies including Alzheimer disease. Neurodegenerative tauopathies, including Alzheimer disease (AD), 3The abbreviations used are: AD, Alzheimer disease; APP, amyloid precursor protein; Cdk5, cyclin-dependent kinase 5; ERK, extracellular signal-regulated kinase; GSK-3, glycogen synthase kinase 3; IP, immunoprecipitation; JNK, c-Jun N-terminal kinase; MAPK, mitogen-activated protein kinase; MEK, MAPK/ERK kinase; PP1, protein phosphatase 1; PP2A, protein phosphatase 2A; TBS, Tris-buffered saline; TG, transgenic; WT, wild-type; CHAPS, 3-[(3-cholamidopropyl)dimethylammonio]-1-propanesulfonic acid. are characterized by abnormal hyperphosphorylation of the microtubule-associated protein tau at proline-directed serine/threonine phosphorylation sites (1Lee V.M.Y. Goedert M. Trojanowski J.Q. Annu. Rev. Neurosci. 2001; 24: 1121-1159Crossref PubMed Scopus (2162) Google Scholar). Amongst the main aberrantly hyperphosphorylated sites on tau are the pathological phosphosites Ser-202/Thr-205 (AT8 site), Ser-214 and/or Ser-212 (AT100 site), Thr-231 and/or Ser-235 (TG3 site), and Ser-396/Ser-404 (PHF-1 site) (1Lee V.M.Y. Goedert M. Trojanowski J.Q. Annu. Rev. Neurosci. 2001; 24: 1121-1159Crossref PubMed Scopus (2162) Google Scholar, 2Drechsel D.N. Hyman A.A. Cobb M.H. Kirschner M.W. Mol. Biol. Cell. 1992; 3: 1141-1154Crossref PubMed Scopus (774) Google Scholar, 3Buee L. Bussiere T. Buee-Scherrer V. Delacourte A. Hof P.R. Brain. Res. Rev. 2000; 33: 95-130Crossref PubMed Scopus (1574) Google Scholar). A well characterized function of tau is the assembly and stabilization of microtubules (1Lee V.M.Y. Goedert M. Trojanowski J.Q. Annu. Rev. Neurosci. 2001; 24: 1121-1159Crossref PubMed Scopus (2162) Google Scholar, 2Drechsel D.N. Hyman A.A. Cobb M.H. Kirschner M.W. Mol. Biol. Cell. 1992; 3: 1141-1154Crossref PubMed Scopus (774) Google Scholar, 3Buee L. Bussiere T. Buee-Scherrer V. Delacourte A. Hof P.R. Brain. Res. Rev. 2000; 33: 95-130Crossref PubMed Scopus (1574) Google Scholar). Tau binds directly to microtubules and promotes microtubule polymerization (2Drechsel D.N. Hyman A.A. Cobb M.H. Kirschner M.W. Mol. Biol. Cell. 1992; 3: 1141-1154Crossref PubMed Scopus (774) Google Scholar, 3Buee L. Bussiere T. Buee-Scherrer V. Delacourte A. Hof P.R. Brain. Res. Rev. 2000; 33: 95-130Crossref PubMed Scopus (1574) Google Scholar). Increasing phosphorylation of tau leads to its dissociation from microtubules and in turn to microtubule destabilization (4Bramblett G.T. Goedert M. Jakes R. Merrick S.E. Trojanowski J.Q. Lee V.M.Y. Neuron. 1993; 10: 1089-1099Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (765) Google Scholar, 5Biernat J. Guske N. Drewes G. Mandelkow E.M. Mandelkow E. Neuron. 1993; 11: 153-163Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (651) Google Scholar). The interaction of tau and microtubules also plays an important role in the regulation of microtubule-dependent axonal transport (6Stamer K. Vogel R. Thies E. Mandelkow E. Mandelkow E.M. J. Cell Biol. 2002; 156: 1051-1063Crossref PubMed Scopus (752) Google Scholar, 7Mandelkow E.M. Thies E. Trinczek B. Biernat J. Mandelkow E. J. Cell Biol. 2004; 167: 99-110Crossref PubMed Scopus (221) Google Scholar). A recent study proposed that deficient axonal transport may be important in the early stages of pathogenesis of AD (8Stokin G.B. Lillo C. Falzone T.L. Brusch R.G. Rockenstein E. Mount S.L. Raman R. Davies P. Masliah E. Williams D.S. Goldstein L.S.B. Science. 2005; 307: 1282-1288Crossref PubMed Scopus (981) Google Scholar). Precise regulation of phosphorylation of tau is probably important for its normal cellular functions; aberrant tau hyperphosphorylation is believed to disrupt cellular processes such as axonal transport. However, it is still not established what the physiological importance of the individual tau phosphorylation sites is. The normal phosphorylation state of tau is balanced by antagonistic kinase and phosphatase activity. Thus, numerous protein kinases and protein phosphatases have been implicated in the abnormal hyperphosphorylation of tau (for review, see Ref. 3Buee L. Bussiere T. Buee-Scherrer V. Delacourte A. Hof P.R. Brain. Res. Rev. 2000; 33: 95-130Crossref PubMed Scopus (1574) Google Scholar). The proline-directed serine/threonine kinases, cyclin-dependent kinase 5 (Cdk5) and glycogen synthase kinase 3 (GSK3), have been identified as prime candidates mediating aberrant tau phosphorylation at disease-associated sites (9Hanger D.P. Hughes K. Woodgett J.R. Brion J.P. Anderton B.H. Neurosci. Lett. 1992; 147: 58-62Crossref PubMed Scopus (657) Google Scholar, 10Ishiguro K. Takamatsu M. Tomizawa K. Omori A. Takahashi M. Arioka M. Uchida T. Imahori K. J. Biol. Chem. 1992; 267: 10897-10901Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Google Scholar, 11Mandelkow E.M. Drewes G. Biernat J. Gustke N. Van Lint J. Vandenheede J.R. Mandelkow E. FEBS Lett. 1992; 314: 315-321Crossref PubMed Scopus (483) Google Scholar, 12Paudel H.K. Lew J. Ali Z. Wang J.H. J. Biol. Chem. 1993; 268: 23512-23518Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Google Scholar). Cdk5 co-localizes with filamentous tau deposits and has increased activity in several tauopathies, including AD (Refs. 13Liu F. Su Y. Li B. Zhou Y. Ryder J. Gonzalez-DeWhitt P. May P.C. Ni B. FEBS Lett. 2003; 547: 193-196Crossref PubMed Scopus (92) Google Scholar, 14Nakamura S. Kawamoto Y. Nakano S. Ikemoto A. Akiguchi I. Kimura J. Neurology. 1997; 48: 267-270Crossref PubMed Scopus (48) Google Scholar, 15Patrick G.N. Zukerberg L. Nikolic M. de la Monte S. Dikkes P. Tsai L.H. Nature. 1999; 402: 615-622Crossref PubMed Scopus (1323) Google Scholar; for review, see Ref. 16Shelton S.B. Johnson G.V.W. J. Neurochem. 2004; 88: 1313-1326Crossref PubMed Scopus (131) Google Scholar). GSK3 generates disease-associated phospho-epitopes on tau (17Nishimura I. Yang Y. Lu B. Cell. 2004; 116: 671-682Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (278) Google Scholar) and co-localizes with aggregates of hyperphosphorylated tau (18Ishizawa T. Sahara N. Ishiguro K. Kersh J. McGowan E. Lewis J. Hutton M. Dickson D.W. Yen S.H. Am. J. Pathol. 2003; 163: 1057-1067Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (89) Google Scholar). Based on this, much research effort has been focused on the development of specific inhibitors for Cdk5 and GSK3 as potential therapeutic treatments in tauopathies (for review, see Refs. 19Lau L.F. Seymour P.A. Sanner M.A. Schachter J.B. J. Mol. Neurosci. 2002; 19: 267-273Crossref PubMed Scopus (53) Google Scholar and 20Cohen P. Goedert M. Nat. Rev. Drug Discov. 2004; 3: 479-487Crossref PubMed Scopus (677) Google Scholar). However, the roles of Cdk5 and GSK3 in tau hyperphosphorylation are not fully established, and it still remains to determine the critical factors leading to abnormal tau hyperphosphorylation in tauopathies. In the present study we have used a transgenic (TG) mouse line expressing low levels of the Cdk5 activator p25 (21Angelo M. Plattner F. Irvine E.E. Giese K.P. Eur. J. Neurosci. 2003; 18: 423-431Crossref PubMed Scopus (80) Google Scholar) to analyze in vivo the impact of Cdk5 over-activation on tau hyperphosphorylation. We assessed the phosphorylation state of tau at sites characteristically hyperphosphorylated in tauopathies including the AT8, AT100, TG3, and PHF-1 sites. Surprisingly, we find that activation of Cdk5 does not affect tau hyperphosphorylation at these sites in young TG mice. However, p25-induced Cdk5 over-activation leads to inhibition of GSK3. This inhibitory cross-talk of Cdk5 and GSK3 is correlated with the finding that Cdk5 and GSK3 are associated in a complex. In old TG mice the inhibitory regulation of GSK3 is lost, and GSK3 activity is significantly increased. Furthermore, in old TG mice we observe increased phosphorylation at the AT8 and PHF-1 sites, which accords with the enhanced GSK3 activity. Consistently, we find that pharmacological inhibition of GSK3 with lithium leads to a reduction of the increased tau phosphorylation in old TG mice. Our study shows for the first time in vivo that Cdk5 can indirectly affect tau hyperphosphorylation via the regulation of GSK3 activity and establishes GSK3 as a key mediator of tau phosphorylation at disease-associated sites. Hence, these results suggest GSK3 as a prime target for therapeutic intervention in neurodegenerative tauopathies, whereas inhibition of Cdk5 may be inappropriate as a treatment for tauopathies. Animals—Heterozygous p25 TG mice and wild-type (WT) control littermates in the C57BL/6 genetic background were bred and genotyped by PCR analysis as reported (21Angelo M. Plattner F. Irvine E.E. Giese K.P. Eur. J. Neurosci. 2003; 18: 423-431Crossref PubMed Scopus (80) Google Scholar). The mice were housed in groups of 2-5 and treated according to the Animals (Scientific Procedures) Act or 1986, UK. Antibodies and Reagents—Primary antibodies used for immunoblotting are listed in Table 1. Horseradish peroxidase-conjugated secondary antibodies were from Perbio, and protease inhibitor Complete tablets EDTA-free were from Roche. All chemicals were from Sigma unless stated otherwise.TABLE 1Antibodies used for immunoblottingAntibodyEpitopeIsotypeBufferDilutionSourceCdk5 (C-8)Cdk5 C terminusRabbit IgGMilk1:200Santa Cruzp35 (C-19)p35 and p25 C terminusRabbit IgGMilk1:200Santa Cruz4G-1ETotal GSK3α/βMouse IgGMilk1:1000Upstate9332Total GSK3βRabbit IgGMilk1:1000Cell Signaling Technology9331Phospho-GSK3α/β (Ser-21/9)Rabbit IgGMilk1:1000Cell Signaling Technology5G-2FPhospho-GSK3α/β (Tyr-279/216)Mouse IgGMilk1:1000UpstateAT-8Tau phospho-Ser-202/205Mouse IgGMilk1:1000PierceAT-100Tau phospho-Thr-212/S214Mouse IgGBSA1:2000InnogeneticsPHF1Tau phospho-Ser-396/404Mouse IgGMilk1:100P. DaviesTG3Tau phospho-Thr-231/S235, conformation-dependentMouse IgMBSA1:100P. DaviesBR134Pan-tauRabbit IgGMilk1:750M. GoedertTAU-5Pan-tau (residues 220–240)Mouse IgGMilk1:1000ChemiconSMI31Phospho-neurofilament antibody cross-reacting with PHF-1 site on tauMouse IgGMilk1:1000Sternberger Monoclonals, Inc.9562β-CateninRabbit IgGBSA1:3000Cell Signaling Technology06-182Total ERK1/2Mouse IgGMilk1:1000Upstate4377Phospho-ERK1/2 (Thr-202/Tyr-204)Monoclonal rabbit IgGBSA1:1000Cell Signaling Technology9121Phospho-MEK1/2 (Ser-217/221)Rabbit IgGBSA1:1000Cell Signaling Technology9251Phospho-SAPK/JNK (Thr-183/Tyr-185)aSAPK, stress-activated protein kinaseRabbig IgGBSA1:1000Cell Signaling TechnologyPP2AcCatalytic subunit of PP2AMouse IgGMilk1:1000S. M. DilworthPR65/AScaffolding/regulatory subunit of PP2AMouse IgGMilk1:1000S. M. Dilworthsc-7482Catalytic subunit of PP1 (total protein)Mouse IgGMilk1:2000Santa Cruz2581Phospho-PP1 (Thr-320)Rabbit IgGBSA1:500Cell Signaling Technology2452APP (around unphosphorylated Thr-668)Rabbit IgGBSA1:1000Cell Signaling Technology2451Phospho-APP (Thr-668)Rabbit IgGBSA1:1000Cell Signaling TechnologyA5441β-ActinMouse IgGMilk1:50000SigmaS2177SynaptotagminRabbit IgGMilk1:40000Sigmaa SAPK, stress-activated protein kinase Open table in a new tab Lysate Preparation—Mice were euthanized using CO2, the brain was quickly removed, and the hippocampus was dissected in 4 °C lysate buffer. The hippocampi were Dounce-homogenized in 4 °C lysate buffer and stored at -80 °C. The lysate buffer (10 mm Tris, pH 7.4, 320 mm sucrose, 1% Triton X-100, 1% CHAPS and 0.025% NaN3) contained phosphatase and protease inhibitors (1 mm EDTA, 1 mm EGTA, 50 mm sodium fluoride, 2 mm sodium orthovanadate, 0.1 mm ammonium molybdate, 0.2 mm phenylarsine oxide, and Complete tablets). Protein concentrations were determined with the BCA assay (Perbio). Immunoblot Analysis—Equal amounts of protein were separated on 4-16% polyacrylamide gels (Bio-Rad), transferred onto polyvinylidene difluoride membranes (Bio-Rad), and incubated in blocking buffer consisting of TBS (10 mm Tris, pH 7.6, and 150 mm NaCl) with either 3% milk or 3% bovine serum albumin. Blots were incubated overnight at 4 °C with primary antibodies (Table 1) in blocking buffer. After washing in several volumes of TBS with 0.05% Tween 20 (TBST), the blots were incubated with horseradish peroxidase-conjugated secondary antibodies in blocking buffer and washed again in TBST, and signals were visualized with the enhanced chemiluminescent system (Perbio). Band intensities from x-ray film (Amersham Biosciences) were quantified with Densitometer Quantity One (Bio-Rad) in the linear range. Blots were stripped with stripping buffer (Perbio) and reprobed with anti-β-actin and anti-synaptotagmin antibody to normalize for the amount of loaded protein. Immunoprecipitation (IP)—Hippocampal lysate with a protein content of 1 mg was diluted in 1 ml of ice-cold IP buffer (150 mm NaCl, 10 mm Tris-HCl, pH 7.6, 1% Triton X-100, 0.025% NaN3) with protease and phosphatase inhibitors. The IP mix was precleared, and 5 μg of GSK3β antibody were added. The mix was incubated for 3 h on a rotator at 4 °C. One hundred microliters of IgG bead slurry were added and rotated for 3 h at 4 °C. The beads were washed 3 times with 1 ml of ice-cold IP buffer containing protease and phosphatase inhibitors. The sample was denatured in 50 μl of SDS sample loading buffer at 90 °C for 15 min, separated on 4-16% polyacrylamide gels (Bio-Rad), and transferred onto polyvinylidene difluoride membranes (Bio-Rad). Immunoblot analysis of IP using rabbit IgG primary antibodies was visualized with True Blot horseradish peroxidase-conjugated secondary antibody (eBioscience) detecting only native, un-denatured rabbit IgG. Cdk5 Activity Assay—Lysate containing 200 μg of protein was diluted in 350 μl IP buffer (150 mm NaCl, 10 mm Tris-HCl, pH 7.6, 1% Triton X-100, 0.025% NaN3) containing protease and phosphatase inhibitors and centrifuged, and supernatant was transferred to a new tube. One microgram of anti-Cdk5 antibody was added per tube, and the mix incubated for 1.5 h at 4 °C under constant shaking. Thirty microliters of protein A bead slurry were added and incubated for 1.5 h at 4 °C under constant shaking. After settling of the beads, the supernatant was discarded, and the beads were washed 3 times with 400 μl of IP buffer. Forty microliters of the kinase reaction mix (20 mm Tris, pH 7.6, 25 mm MgCl2, 1 mm EDTA, 0.5 mm β-glycerol phosphate, 0.2 mm sodium orthovanadate) containing 20 μg of the Cdk5 substrate histone 1 (Upstate) and the inhibitor mixture (Upstate) with 5 μm protein kinase C inhibitor peptide, 0.5 μm cyclic AMP-dependent protein kinase A inhibitor peptide, and 0.5 μm Compound R24571 were added to the beads. The reaction was initiated by the addition of 10 μl of 100 μm ATP solution containing 5 μCi of radioactive-labeled [γ-32P]ATP (GE Healthcare). The samples were incubated for 30-60 min at 30 °C. The reaction was stopped by spotting 25 μl of assay mix on p81 nitrocellulose paper (Upstate). The paper was washed 3 times in 0.75% phosphoric acid and once with acetone. The radioactivity was measured by Cherenkov counting using 25 ml of polyethylene scintillation vials filled with 12 ml of H2O. Cdk5 activity was calculated as the difference between the activity with and without the presence of 10 μm roscovitine, a Cdk5 inhibitor. GSK3 Activity Assay—The GSK3 activity assay was performed similarly to the Cdk5 activity assay with the following changes; lysate containing 100 μg of protein was immunoprecipitated with 1 μg of anti-GSK3β antibody. The kinase reaction mix contained 5 μg of the GSK3 substrate phospho-glycogen synthase peptide-2 (Upstate), 0.2 μm okadaic acid (a protein phosphatase 1 and 2A (PP1; PP2A) inhibitor), and 10 μm roscovitine (a Cdk5 inhibitor). The kinase reaction mix was incubated for 1.5 h at 30 °C. GSK3 activity was calculated as the difference between the activity with and without the presence of 10 mm LiCl, a GSK3 inhibitor. Chronic Lithium Administration—22-24-month-old TG mice (n = 4) and 18-19-month-old WT mice (n = 3) were chronically treated with lithium for 1 month. For the injection, a 0.1 m LiCl solution was prepared and filter-sterilized. The first 2 days the mice were injected intraperitoneally with 1.5 meq/kg LiCl (corresponding to 10.4 mg/kg). From days 3-7 a dose of 3 meq/kg was administered. Control aged p25 transgenic mice (n = 4) were injected with saline. Thereafter, the mice were fed with powdered chow containing 1.7 g of LiCl/kg of chow for 3 weeks. Control aged p25 transgenic mice were given powdered chow without LiCl. To prevent hyponatremia, water and 400 mm NaCl solution were available ad libitum to the mice. Data Analysis—Statistical analysis was performed using one-way analysis of variance. Data are expressed as the mean ± S.E. Age-dependent Increase in Tau Hyperphosphorylation in p25 TG Mice with Constant Cdk5 Over-activation—In this study we analyzed a TG mouse line expressing the Cdk5 activator p25 to investigate in vivo the roles of Cdk5 and GSK3 in tau hyperphosphorylation. Our transgenic mouse line, in which the p25 transgene is driven by the α-Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent kinase II promoter, displayed low level postnatal p25 expression restricted to forebrain, with the highest levels found in the hippocampus (21Angelo M. Plattner F. Irvine E.E. Giese K.P. Eur. J. Neurosci. 2003; 18: 423-431Crossref PubMed Scopus (80) Google Scholar, 22Ris L. Angelo M. Plattner F. Capron B. Errington M.L. Bliss T.V. Godaux E. Giese K.P. Eur. J. Neurosci. 2005; 21: 3023-3033Crossref PubMed Scopus (39) Google Scholar). Hence, we focused on biochemical changes in the hippocampus, a brain area affected in many tauopathies, including AD (1Lee V.M.Y. Goedert M. Trojanowski J.Q. Annu. Rev. Neurosci. 2001; 24: 1121-1159Crossref PubMed Scopus (2162) Google Scholar, 23Braak H. Braak E. Acta Neuropathol. (Berl.). 1991; 82: 239-259Crossref PubMed Scopus (11766) Google Scholar). We examined the impact of p25-induced Cdk5 over-activation on the phosphorylation level of tau at sites abnormally hyperphosphorylated in tauopathies in both young (3 months) and old (18 months) p25 TG mice. To investigate these disease-related phosphorylation sites on tau, we used phospho-specific antibodies commonly employed in neuropathological studies that recognize aberrantly hyperphosphorylated epitopes on tau including AT8 (Ser-202/Thr-205), AT100 (Thr-214 and/or Ser-212), TG3 (Thr-231/Ser-235), and PHF-1 (Ser-396/Ser-404). We observed an age-dependent increase in tau hyperphosphorylated at the AT-8 site and PHF-1 site in the hippocampus of TG mice (Fig. 1, A and B). In young TG mice no enhanced tau hyperphosphorylation was observed with these antibodies (Fig. 1, A and B; supplemental Fig. 1) even though Cdk5 activity was constantly increased by ∼2-fold as demonstrated by a Cdk5 kinase activity assay (Fig. 2D). In contrast, old TG mice displayed significantly elevated levels of tau phosphorylation by ∼90% using both AT8 and PHF-1 antibodies (Fig. 1, A and B). The results of the PHF-1 antibody were confirmed with the phosphorylation-dependent neurofilament antibody, SMI31, known to cross-react with tau hyperphosphorylated at the PHF-1 site (24Lichtenberg-Kraag B. Mandelkow E.M. Biernat J. Steiner B. Schroter C. Gustke N. Meyer H.E. Mandelkow E. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 1992; 89: 5384-5388Crossref PubMed Scopus (179) Google Scholar). The SMI31 antibody showed no changes in young mice but revealed increased tau hyperphosphorylation in old TG mice (Fig. 1, A and B). The antibodies AT100 and TG3 did not detect significant changes in phosphorylation levels between TG and WT mice at an old age (Fig. 1A and supplemental Fig. 1).FIGURE 2Constant Cdk5 over-activation induced by p25 expression in the hippocampus of TG mice. A, no age-dependent changes in expression of p25 and Cdk5 between genotypes were found. Immunoblots of hippocampal lysates from 3- and 18-month-old WT and TG mice were probed with C-19 (antibody detecting the Cdk5 activator proteins, p25 and p35) and Cdk5-specific antibodies. B, Cdk5 activity (mean ± S.E.) was increased by ∼2-fold in both young and old TG mice as compared with WT mice (3-month, n = 4, F1,6 = 29.0, **, p < 0.01; 18-month, n = 4, F1,6 = 33.2, **, p < 0.01). C, increased phosphorylation levels of APP (pAPP) at the Cdk5-specific site Thr-668 (as per APP695 isoform) were detected in hippocampal lysate from 3- and 18-month-old TG mice as compared with WT mice. No differences in total protein levels of APP were detected between genotypes as tested with an antibody against an unphosphorylated epitope around Thr-668 on APP. D, quantification of phospho-APP (Thr-668) signal demonstrated an ∼60% increase in TG mice both at 3 months (n = 6, F1,10 = 11.1, **, p < 0.01) and 18 months (n = 4, F1,6 = 175, ***, p < 0.001).View Large Image Figure ViewerDownload Hi-res image Download (PPT) To determine whether the age-dependent increase in tau hyperphosphorylation was related to changes in expression levels of p25, p35, and Cdk5 or the level of Cdk5 activity, we examined these parameters in young and old WT and TG mice. The p25 transgene was expressed constantly at low levels at around 33% of endogenous p35 expression (Fig. 2A and Ref. 21Angelo M. Plattner F. Irvine E.E. Giese K.P. Eur. J. Neurosci. 2003; 18: 423-431Crossref PubMed Scopus (80) Google Scholar). No age-dependent changes were detected in the expression levels of p35 and Cdk5 (Fig. 2A). Consistent with these results, Cdk5 kinase activity was increased ∼2-fold in both young and old TG mice as compared with WT controls (Fig. 2B). Thus, an age-dependent alteration in Cdk5 activity cannot account for the age-dependent hyperphosphorylation of tau at the disease-related sites. Furthermore, we assessed the level of phosphorylation of the amyloid precursor protein (APP) at the proline-directed site Thr-668 (annotated as per APP695 isoform). This site is specifically phosphorylated by Cdk5 and, hence, displays enhanced levels of phosphorylation in p25-expressing TG mice with over-activation of Cdk5 (25Iijima K. Ando K. Takeda S. Satoh Y. Seki T. Itohara S. Greengard P. Kirino Y. Nairn A.C. Suzuki T. J. Neurochem. 2000; 75: 1085-1091Crossref PubMed Scopus (208) Google Scholar, 26Cruz J.C. Tseng H.C. Goldman J.A. Shih H. Tsai L.H. Neuron. 2003; 40: 471-483Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (505) Google Scholar). Consistently, we found that the phosphorylation of APP at Thr-668 was significantly increased by ∼60% in both young and aged TG mice as compared with control WT mice (Fig. 2, C and D). No changes in total APP protein levels were observed (Fig. 2C). This constant elevation of APP phosphorylation in the TG mice is in accordance with the results of the Cdk5 kinase activity assay. Together, these results confirm that Cdk5 activity is constantly increased in vivo in the p25 TG mice. Nevertheless, the p25-induced Cdk5 over-activation does not induce hyperphosphorylation at the assessed disease-associated sites on tau in young TG mice. However, in old TG mice the level of phosphorylation was significantly increased both at the AT8 and PHF-1 sites on tau. Age-dependent Inhibitory Regulation of GSK3 Activity in p25 TG Mice—Because there were no age-related changes in the activity of Cdk5 to account for the increased tau phosphorylation in the TG mice, we studied the involvement of other proline-directed kinases that have been linked to aberrant tau hyperphosphorylation (1Lee V.M.Y. Goedert M. Trojanowski J.Q. Annu. Rev. Neurosci. 2001; 24: 1121-1159Crossref PubMed Scopus (2162) Google Scholar, 3Buee L. Bussiere T. Buee-Scherrer V. Delacourte A. Hof P.R. Brain. Res. Rev. 2000; 33: 95-130Crossref PubMed Scopus (1574) Google Scholar). First, we tested the phosphorylation levels of the activating regulatory sites of extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 (ERK1/2), c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK), and MAPK/ERK kinase 1/2 (MEK1/2). We observed no differences in the phosphorylation levels of the activating regulatory sites on JNK and MEK1/2 (Fig. 3A and supplemental Fig. 2). The phosphorylation level at the activation site of ERK was reduced in TG mice as compared with WT controls (Fig. 3, A and B). This is consistent with the observation that Cdk5 regulates the activity of ERK via the inhibition of MEK1 (27Sharma P. Veeranna Sharma M. Amin N.D. Sihag R.K. Grant P. Ahn N. Kulkarni A.B. Pant H.C. J. Biol. Chem. 2002; 277: 528-534Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (135) Google Scholar). Assessment of the phosphorylation level of the regulatory sites of GSK3 revealed a significant change between TG mice and WT controls. GSK3 is one of the major candidate mediators of tau hyperphosphorylation in tauopathies and has been shown to phosphorylate proline-directed serine/threonine sites similarly to Cdk5 (Ref. 7Mandelkow E.M. Thies E. Trinczek B. Biernat J. Mandelkow E. J. Cell Biol. 2004; 167: 99-110Crossref PubMed Scopus (221) Google Scholar; for review, see Ref. 3Buee L. Bussiere T. Buee-Scherrer V. Delacourte A. Hof P.R. Brain. Res. Rev. 2000; 33: 95-130Crossref PubMed Scopus (1574) Google Scholar). One particular feature of GSK3 is that it requires priming of some of its phosphorylation sites by other kinases such as cyclic AMP-dependent protein kinase A and Cdk5 (28Sengupta A. Wu Q. Grundke-Iqbal I. Iqbal K. Singh T.J. Mol. Cell. Biochem. 1997; 167: 99-105Crossref PubMed Scopus (154) Google Scholar, 29Dajani R. Fraser E. Roe S.M. Young N. Good V. Dale T.C. Pear L.H. Cell. 2001; 105: 721-732Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (588) Google Scholar). It has been proposed that once the priming sites on tau are modified, GSK3 is able to sequentially phosphorylate adjacent sites and, hence, induce hyperphosphorylation (30Cho J.H. Johnson G.V. J. Biol. Chem. 2003; 278: 187-193Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (212) Google Scholar). GSK3 activity is regulated by antagonistic serine and tyrosine phosphorylation. Phosphorylation at Ser-9 in the β-isoform and at Ser-21 in the α-isoform inhibits GSK3 (31Stambolic V. Woodgett J.R. Biochem. J. 1994; 303: 701-704Crossref PubMed Scopus (512) Google Scholar), whereas phosphorylation of Tyr-216 in the β-isoform and Tyr-279 in the α-isoform is essential for GSK3 activation (32Hughes K. Nikolakaki E. Plyte S.E. Totty N.F. Woodgett J.R. EMBO J. 1993; 12: 803-808Crossref PubMed Scopus (525) Google Scholar). We observed that the activity of GSK3 was differentially regulated in TG mice. In young TG mice, phosphorylation of GSK3β at the inhibitory site was significantly increased by ∼85% (Fig. 4,