Diamond Blackfan Anemia (DBA) is a rare macrocytic red blood cell aplasia that usually presents within the first year of life. The vast majority of patients carry a mutation in one of approximately 20 genes that results in ribosomal insufficiency with the most significant clinical manifestations being anemia and a predisposition to cancers. Nemo-like Kinase (NLK) is hyperactivated in the erythroid progenitors of DBA patients and inhibition of this kinase improves erythropoiesis, but how NLK contributes to the pathogenesis of the disease is unknown. Here we report that activated NLK suppresses the critical upregulation of mitochondrial biogenesis required in early erythropoiesis. During normal erythropoiesis, mTORC1 facilitates the translational upregulation of Transcription factor A, mitochondrial (TFAM), and Prohibin 2 (PHB2) to increase mitochondrial biogenesis. In our models of DBA, active NLK phosphorylates the regulatory component of mTORC1, thereby suppressing mTORC1 activity and preventing mTORC1-mediated TFAM and PHB2 upregulation and subsequent mitochondrial biogenesis. Improvement of erythropoiesis that accompanies NLK inhibition is negated when TFAM and PHB2 upregulation is prevented. These data demonstrate that a significant contribution of NLK on the pathogenesis of DBA is through loss of mitochondrial biogenesis. Diamond Blackfan Anemia (DBA) is a rare macrocytic red blood cell aplasia that usually presents within the first year of life. The vast majority of patients carry a mutation in one of approximately 20 genes that results in ribosomal insufficiency with the most significant clinical manifestations being anemia and a predisposition to cancers. Nemo-like Kinase (NLK) is hyperactivated in the erythroid progenitors of DBA patients and inhibition of this kinase improves erythropoiesis, but how NLK contributes to the pathogenesis of the disease is unknown. Here we report that activated NLK suppresses the critical upregulation of mitochondrial biogenesis required in early erythropoiesis. During normal erythropoiesis, mTORC1 facilitates the translational upregulation of Transcription factor A, mitochondrial (TFAM), and Prohibin 2 (PHB2) to increase mitochondrial biogenesis. In our models of DBA, active NLK phosphorylates the regulatory component of mTORC1, thereby suppressing mTORC1 activity and preventing mTORC1-mediated TFAM and PHB2 upregulation and subsequent mitochondrial biogenesis. Improvement of erythropoiesis that accompanies NLK inhibition is negated when TFAM and PHB2 upregulation is prevented. These data demonstrate that a significant contribution of NLK on the pathogenesis of DBA is through loss of mitochondrial biogenesis. Diamond Blackfan Anemia (DBA) is an inherited bone marrow failure syndrome associated with severe anemia, an increased risk of developing cancers and congenital malformations. Most DBA patients carry genetic mutations affecting ribosomal protein genes. The disease is characterized by moderate to severe macrocytic anemia with hypoplastic bone marrow and reticulocytopenia (1Wilkes M.C. Shibuya A. Sakamoto K.M. Signaling pathways that regulate normal and aberrant red blood cell development.Genes (Basel). 2021; 12: 1646Crossref PubMed Scopus (5) Google Scholar). Evidence supports a decrease in uncommitted hematopoietic progenitors (2Wilkes M.C. Scanlon V. Shibuya A. Cepika A.M. Eskin A. Chen Z. et al.Downregulation of SATB1 by miRNAs reduces megakaryocyte/erythroid progenitor expansion in preclinical models of Diamond-Blackfan anemia.Exp. Hematol. 2022; 111: 66-78Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (5) Google Scholar) with a more severe restriction in the earliest committed erythroid progenitors (3Ohene-Abuakwa Y. Orfali K.A. Marius C. Ball S.E. Two-phase culture in Diamond Blackfan anemia: localization of erythroid defect.Blood. 2005; 105: 838-846Crossref PubMed Scopus (81) Google Scholar, 4Devlin E.E. Dacosta L. Mohandas N. Elliott G. Bodine D.M. A transgenic mouse model demonstrates a dominant negative effect of a point mutation in the RPS19 gene associated with Diamond-Blackfan anemia.Blood. 2010; 116: 2826-2835Crossref PubMed Scopus (80) Google Scholar, 5Wilkes M.C. Chae H.D. Scanlon V. Cepika A.M. Wentworth E.P. Saxena M. et al.SATB1 chromatin loops regulate Megakaryocyte/Erythroid Progenitor Expansion by facilitating HSP70 and GATA1 induction.Stem Cells. 2023; 41: 560-569Crossref PubMed Scopus (1) Google Scholar). Long-term bone marrow culture assays from DBA patients indicate defects in megakaryocytic and granulocytic progenitors (6Casadevall N. Croisille L. Auffray I. Tchernia G. Coulombel L. Age-related alterations in erythroid and granulopoietic progenitors in Diamond-Blackfan anaemia.Br. J. Haematol. 1994; 87: 369-375Crossref PubMed Google Scholar, 7Santucci M.A. Bagnara G.P. Strippoli P. Bonsi L. Vitale L. Tonelli R. et al.Long-term bone marrow cultures in Diamond-Blackfan anemia reveal a defect of both granulomacrophage and erythroid progenitors.Exp. Hematol. 1999; 27: 9-18Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (41) Google Scholar) and, in rare cases, progression to complete aplasia (8Alter B.P. Giri N. Savage S.A. Rosenberg P.S. Cancer in the National Cancer Institute inherited bone marrow failure syndrome cohort after fifteen years of follow-up.Haematologica. 2018; 103: 30-39Crossref PubMed Scopus (226) Google Scholar) can occur. Improving therapy for DBA is an urgent unmet clinical need as many patients are treated with frequent blood transfusions and iron chelation, chronic steroids, or hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (2Wilkes M.C. Scanlon V. Shibuya A. Cepika A.M. Eskin A. Chen Z. et al.Downregulation of SATB1 by miRNAs reduces megakaryocyte/erythroid progenitor expansion in preclinical models of Diamond-Blackfan anemia.Exp. Hematol. 2022; 111: 66-78Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (5) Google Scholar, 9Liu Y.L. Shibuya A. Glader B. Wilkes M.C. Barna M. Sakamoto K.M. Animal models of Diamond-Blackfan anemia: updates and challenges.Haematologica. 2023; 108: 1222-1231Crossref PubMed Scopus (6) Google Scholar), all of which carry significant morbidity and poor quality of life. Nemo-like kinase (NLK) is an evolutionarily conserved serine/threonine kinase belonging to the proline-directed protein kinase superfamily, which consists of mitogen-activated protein kinases and cyclin-dependent protein kinases (10Brott B.K. Pinsky B.A. Erikson R.L. Nlk is a murine protein kinase related to Erk/MAP kinases and localized in the nucleus.Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 1998; 95: 963-968Crossref PubMed Scopus (120) Google Scholar). NLK contributes to cell proliferation, differentiation, apoptosis, and morphological changes during early embryogenesis and nervous system development and is involved in the pathogenesis of several human cancers (11Ishitani T. Ishitani S. Nemo-like kinase, a multifaceted cell signaling regulator.Cell Signal. 2013; 25: 190-197Crossref PubMed Scopus (61) Google Scholar, 12Lv M. Li Y. Tian X. Dai S. Sun J. Jin G. et al.Lentivirus-mediated knockdown of NLK inhibits small-cell lung cancer growth and metastasis.Drug Des. Dev. Ther. 2016; 10: 3737-3746Crossref PubMed Scopus (9) Google Scholar). Overexpression of NLK in colorectal, laryngeal, and non-small cell lung cancer, as well as osteosarcomas and neuroblastomas correlate with poor prognosis and more aggressive tumors. In contrast, NLK is significantly downregulated in breast cancer tissues, and re-expression of NLK results in c-Myb downregulation, reduced proliferation, and increased apoptosis in MCF7 breast cancer cells (13Huang Y. Jiang Y. Lu W. Zhang Y. Nemo-like kinase associated with proliferation and apoptosis by c-Myb degradation in breast cancer.PLoS One. 2013; 8e69148Google Scholar). NLK expression is also reduced in prostate metastasis, hepatocellular carcinoma, and glioblastoma with less favorable clinical outcomes, suggesting NLK can serve as an oncogene or tumor suppressor, depending on cell context. NLK kinase activity regulates a diverse array of signaling pathways, including the Wnt/β-catenin, Activin, IL-6, and Notch signaling pathways (11Ishitani T. Ishitani S. Nemo-like kinase, a multifaceted cell signaling regulator.Cell Signal. 2013; 25: 190-197Crossref PubMed Scopus (61) Google Scholar). Raptor, c-Myb (14Wilkes M.C. Siva K. Chen J. Varetti G. Youn M.Y. Chae H. et al.Diamond Blackfan anemia is mediated by hyperactive Nemo-like kinase.Nat. Commun. 2020; 11: 3344Crossref PubMed Scopus (11) Google Scholar), ATF5 (15Zhang Z.Y. Li S.Z. Zhang H.H. Wu Q.R. Gong J. Liang T. et al.Stabilization of ATF5 by TAK1-Nemo-like kinase critically regulates the interleukin-1beta-stimulated C/EBP signaling pathway.Mol. Cell Biol. 2015; 35: 778-788Crossref PubMed Scopus (18) Google Scholar), FoxO1 (16Kim S. Kim Y. Lee J. Chung J. Regulation of FOXO1 by TAK1-Nemo-like kinase pathway.J. Biol. Chem. 2010; 285: 8122-8129Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (42) Google Scholar), Lef1 (17Ota S. Ishitani S. Shimizu N. Matsumoto K. Itoh M. Ishitani T. NLK positively regulates Wnt/beta-catenin signalling by phosphorylating LEF1 in neural progenitor cells.EMBO J. 2012; 31: 1904-1915Crossref PubMed Scopus (67) Google Scholar) and HDAC (18Masoumi K.C. Daams R. Sime W. Siino V. Ke H. Levander F. et al.NLK-mediated phosphorylation of HDAC1 negatively regulates Wnt signaling.Mol. Biol. Cell. 2017; 28: 346-355Crossref PubMed Google Scholar) are recognized NLK substrates in different cellular contexts. NLK is chronically hyper-activated in the erythroid progenitors of DBA patients, and NLK inhibition improves erythropoiesis in in vitro ribosome insufficient DBA models (1Wilkes M.C. Shibuya A. Sakamoto K.M. Signaling pathways that regulate normal and aberrant red blood cell development.Genes (Basel). 2021; 12: 1646Crossref PubMed Scopus (5) Google Scholar, 14Wilkes M.C. Siva K. Chen J. Varetti G. Youn M.Y. Chae H. et al.Diamond Blackfan anemia is mediated by hyperactive Nemo-like kinase.Nat. Commun. 2020; 11: 3344Crossref PubMed Scopus (11) Google Scholar, 19Wilkes M.C. Siva K. Varetti G. Mercado J. Wentworth E.P. Perez C.A. et al.Metformin-induced suppression of Nemo-like kinase improves erythropoiesis in preclinical models of Diamond-Blackfan anemia through induction of miR-26a.Exp. Hematol. 2020; 91: 65-77Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (8) Google Scholar, 20Wilkes M.C. Jung K. Lee B.E. Saxena M. Sathianathen R.S. Mercado J.D. et al.The active component of ginseng, ginsenoside Rb1, improves erythropoiesis in models of Diamond-Blackfan anemia by targeting Nemo-like kinase.J. Biol. Chem. 2021; 297100988Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (10) Google Scholar). In these models, NLK activation in erythroid progenitors has been demonstrated to increase c-Myb phosphorylation and degradation, as well as Raptor phosphorylation and reduced autophagy (14Wilkes M.C. Siva K. Chen J. Varetti G. Youn M.Y. Chae H. et al.Diamond Blackfan anemia is mediated by hyperactive Nemo-like kinase.Nat. Commun. 2020; 11: 3344Crossref PubMed Scopus (11) Google Scholar), but how NLK activation contributes to DBA pathogenesis has not been established. Determining signaling components downstream of NLK activation in DBA has the potential to illuminate novel therapeutic targets that improve the treatment of DBA patients. Recent studies have characterized the importance of mitochondrial biogenesis in early erythropoiesis. In an unbiased study, Liu et al. identified TFAM and PHB2 are upregulated and essential for the increased mitochondrial biogenesis that occurs in red blood cell expansion (21Liu X. Zhang Y. Ni M. Cao H. Signer R.A.J. Li D. et al.Regulation of mitochondrial biogenesis in erythropoiesis by mTORC1-mediated protein translation.Nat. Cell Biol. 2017; 19: 626-638Crossref PubMed Scopus (116) Google Scholar). Both TFAM and PHB2 mRNA levels are unchanged but protein levels are upregulated, indicating an mTORC1-regulated increase in translation of these transcripts. Notably, the translational increase is not global but rather a specific subset of mTORC1 sensitive transcripts, particularly those containing 5′TOP (terminal oligopyrimidine) sequences in their 5′ untranslated region (5′UTR) (21Liu X. Zhang Y. Ni M. Cao H. Signer R.A.J. Li D. et al.Regulation of mitochondrial biogenesis in erythropoiesis by mTORC1-mediated protein translation.Nat. Cell Biol. 2017; 19: 626-638Crossref PubMed Scopus (116) Google Scholar). As NLK can suppress mTORC1 activity (22Yuan H.X. Wang Z. Yu F.X. Li F. Russell R.C. Jewell J.L. et al.NLK phosphorylates Raptor to mediate stress-induced mTORC1 inhibition.Genes Dev. 2015; 29: 2362-2376Crossref PubMed Scopus (34) Google Scholar) and the mTORC1 stimulant leucine can improve erythropoiesis in DBA models (23Jaako P. Flygare J. Olsson K. Quere R. Ehinger M. Henson A. et al.Mice with ribosomal protein S19 deficiency develop bone marrow failure and symptoms like patients with Diamond-Blackfan anemia.Blood. 2011; 118: 6087-6096Crossref PubMed Scopus (114) Google Scholar, 24Pospisilova D. Cmejlova J. Hak J. Adam T. Cmejla R. Successful treatment of a Diamond-Blackfan anemia patient with amino acid leucine.Haematologica. 2007; 92: e66-e67Crossref PubMed Scopus (71) Google Scholar) we sought to determine if NLK impacts DBA pathogenesis through mTORC1 and mitochondrial biogenesis. Here we present evidence that NLK-mediated phosphorylation of Raptor suppresses mTORC1 activity. Reduced mTORC1 activity decreases the translation efficiency of factors essential for the induction of mitochondrial biogenesis and increases the turnover of mitochondria through mitophagy in ribosome insufficient early erythroid progenitors. Subsequently, this reduction in mitochondrial output contributes to aberrant erythropoiesis in the pathogenesis of DBA. The mTORC1 complex contains the kinase mTOR and other proteins, including the regulatory protein Raptor. Phosphorylation of Raptor at S863 prevents mTORC1 from localizing to the outer lysosomal membrane where the complex is activated by Rheb (14Wilkes M.C. Siva K. Chen J. Varetti G. Youn M.Y. Chae H. et al.Diamond Blackfan anemia is mediated by hyperactive Nemo-like kinase.Nat. Commun. 2020; 11: 3344Crossref PubMed Scopus (11) Google Scholar, 22Yuan H.X. Wang Z. Yu F.X. Li F. Russell R.C. Jewell J.L. et al.NLK phosphorylates Raptor to mediate stress-induced mTORC1 inhibition.Genes Dev. 2015; 29: 2362-2376Crossref PubMed Scopus (34) Google Scholar). In ribosome, insufficient erythroid progenitors, aberrantly activated NLK phosphorylates Raptor at S863 (14Wilkes M.C. Siva K. Chen J. Varetti G. Youn M.Y. Chae H. et al.Diamond Blackfan anemia is mediated by hyperactive Nemo-like kinase.Nat. Commun. 2020; 11: 3344Crossref PubMed Scopus (11) Google Scholar). We examined the impact of NLK-mediated phosphorylation of Raptor in mononuclear cells of bone marrow from three DBA patients and observed a statistically significant reduction in in vitro kinase activity of mTORC1 when compared to controls. Specifically, the in vitro phosphorylation of two well-characterized substrates of mTORC1, (i) S6K and (ii) 4E-BP1 were reduced by 36.1% (p = 0.0299), 35.9% (p = 0.0115) and 17.3% (p = 0.0277) and 36.1% (p = 0.0238), 32.9% (p = 0.0112), 23.8% (p = 0.0087) respectively, when compared to control (Fig. 1A). Similarly, we assayed mTORC1 kinase activity in a common cell model of DBA, in which ribosome insufficiency is induced in hematopoietic progenitors using short hairpin RNA (shRNA) against ribosomal protein subunits mutated in DBA patients, such as RPS19. These cells display a similar erythroid differentiation failure as is observed in the bone marrow of DBA patients (14Wilkes M.C. Siva K. Chen J. Varetti G. Youn M.Y. Chae H. et al.Diamond Blackfan anemia is mediated by hyperactive Nemo-like kinase.Nat. Commun. 2020; 11: 3344Crossref PubMed Scopus (11) Google Scholar, 25Khajuria R.K. Munschauer M. Ulirsch J.C. Fiorini C. Ludwig L.S. McFarland S.K. et al.Ribosome levels selectively regulate translation and lineage commitment in human hematopoiesis.Cell. 2018; 173: 90-103.e119Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (256) Google Scholar, 26Dutt S. Narla A. Lin K. Mullally A. Abayasekara N. Megerdichian C. et al.Haploinsufficiency for ribosomal protein genes causes selective activation of p53 in human erythroid progenitor cells.Blood. 2011; 117: 2567-2576Crossref PubMed Scopus (334) Google Scholar). As with the DBA patient cells, CD34+ hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells (HSPCs) were transduced with RPS19 shRNA, or control, and differentiated in erythropoiesis-promoting media for 5 days, showed reduced mTORC1 kinase activity. S6K phosphorylation (Fig. 1Bi) was reduced by 65.7% (p = 0.0055) and 4E-BP1 phosphorylation was reduced by 68.1% (p = 0.008) compared to controls. Notably, mTORC1 kinase activity was rescued when siRNA against NLK was expressed in cells (S6K p = 0.0239, 4E-BP1 p = 0.0483) (Fig. 1Bi and ii). As well, Rpl11+/Δ mutant mice recapitulate the DBA phenotype (27Morgado-Palacin L. Varetti G. Llanos S. Gomez-Lopez G. Martinez D. Serrano M. Partial loss of Rpl11 in adult mice recapitulates diamond-Blackfan anemia and promotes lymphomagenesis.Cell Rep. 2015; 13: 712-722Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (57) Google Scholar). We analyzed mTORC1 activity in differentiated Lin-c-kit+ HSPCs from these Rpl11 insufficient mice and also observed reduced mTORC1 activity, which was predominantly restored when NLK is suppressed (Fig. S1). Examination of the phosphorylation status of 4E-BP1 in ribosome insufficient erythroid progenitors correlated with the reduction of in vitro mTORC1 observed in Figure 1B. However, as reported previously (28Payne E.M. Virgilio M. Narla A. Sun H. Levine M. Paw B.H. et al.L-Leucine improves the anemia and developmental defects associated with Diamond-Blackfan anemia and del(5q) MDS by activating the mTOR pathway.Blood. 2012; 120: 2214-2224Crossref PubMed Scopus (133) Google Scholar, 29Heijnen H.F. van Wijk R. Pereboom T.C. Goos Y.J. Seinen C.W. van Oirschot B.A. et al.Ribosomal protein mutations induce autophagy through S6 kinase inhibition of the insulin pathway.PLoS Genet. 2014; 10e1004371Crossref PubMed Scopus (52) Google Scholar), S6K phosphorylation increases in ribosome insufficient cells. Unlike the phosphorylation of 4E-BP1, which is highly specific for mTORC1, S6K can be phosphorylated by other kinases, including RSK (30Magnuson B. Ekim B. Fingar D.C. Regulation and function of ribosomal protein S6 kinase (S6K) within mTOR signalling networks.Biochem. J. 2012; 441: 1-21Crossref PubMed Scopus (765) Google Scholar). As S6K phosphorylation was insensitive to NLK expression, we tested the impact of the non-specific RSK inhibitor, BI-D1870, on S6K and 4E-BP1 phosphorylation in RPS19 insufficient hematopoietic progenitors (Fig. 1Ci) and Rpl11+/Δ mutant mice (Fig. 1Cii). We found that BI-D1870 inhibits intracellular S6K phosphorylation, but had no impact on 4E-BP1 phosphorylation in the RPS19 insufficient hematopoietic progenitors (Fig. 1Ci). As BI-D1870 does not target mTOR (31Roffé M. Lupinacci F.C. Soares L.C. Hajj G.N. Martins V.R. Two widely used RSK inhibitors, BI-D1870 and SL0101, alter mTORC1 signaling in a RSK-independent manner.Cell Signal. 2015; 27: 1630-1642Crossref PubMed Scopus (33) Google Scholar) this suggests that intracellular S6K phosphorylation in DBA is due to a different kinase and does not reflect mTORC1 status. In contrast, in the Rpl11+/Δ mutant mice, we observed no increase in S6K or 4E-BP1 phosphorylation with BI-D1870 administration, but we did find that overall levels of phosphorylated S6K and 4E-BP1 (not total) are reduced in erythroid progenitors (Fig. 1Cii). Interestingly, total S6K (second panel) and 4E-BP1 (fourth panel) levels are variable across the mice, perhaps contributing to the variable penetrance of the disease in mouse models (27Morgado-Palacin L. Varetti G. Llanos S. Gomez-Lopez G. Martinez D. Serrano M. Partial loss of Rpl11 in adult mice recapitulates diamond-Blackfan anemia and promotes lymphomagenesis.Cell Rep. 2015; 13: 712-722Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (57) Google Scholar) (Fig. 1Cii). Finally, we examined NLK (i) and mTORC1 (ii) activity kinetics during erythroid differentiation in RPS19 insufficient hematopoietic progenitors and observed a strong induction of NLK activation around day 5, which correlated with a robust reduction in mTORC1 activity (Fig. 1D). Our previously published data demonstrated that the aberrant activation of NLK in early erythroid progenitors in DBA results in phosphorylation of the mTORC1 complex on S863 of Raptor (14Wilkes M.C. Siva K. Chen J. Varetti G. Youn M.Y. Chae H. et al.Diamond Blackfan anemia is mediated by hyperactive Nemo-like kinase.Nat. Commun. 2020; 11: 3344Crossref PubMed Scopus (11) Google Scholar); from the data in Figure 1 we conclude that this phosphorylation of Raptor reduces the activity of mTORC1 leading to a decrease in phosphorylation of downstream substrates 4E-BP1 and S6K by mTORC1 in human and mouse models of DBA. One critical role of mTORC1 signaling is the regulation of protein translation. Active mTORC1 facilitates protein translation through the regulation of the initiation complex. The initiation complex binds mRNA transcripts, increasing their affinity to ribosomes to facilitate their recruitment and consequent translation efficacy. As was observed by others (25Khajuria R.K. Munschauer M. Ulirsch J.C. Fiorini C. Ludwig L.S. McFarland S.K. et al.Ribosome levels selectively regulate translation and lineage commitment in human hematopoiesis.Cell. 2018; 173: 90-103.e119Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (256) Google Scholar, 32Horos R. Ijspeert H. Pospisilova D. Sendtner R. Andrieu-Soler C. Taskesen E. et al.Ribosomal deficiencies in Diamond-Blackfan anemia impair translation of transcripts essential for differentiation of murine and human erythroblasts.Blood. 2012; 119: 262-272Crossref PubMed Scopus (142) Google Scholar) we did not detect a reduction in global translation (Fig. 2A) in ribosome insufficient cells. While mTORC1 stimulation has been demonstrated to increase all translation nonselectively, the transcripts most impacted by mTORC1 activity are those containing 5′Terminal Oligo Pyrimidine (5′TOP) motifs at the beginning (cap) of the 5′Untranslated region (5′UTR) (33Hsieh A.C. Liu Y. Edlind M.P. Ingolia N.T. Janes M.R. Sher A. et al.The translational landscape of mTOR signalling steers cancer initiation and metastasis.Nature. 2012; 485: 55-61Crossref PubMed Scopus (1011) Google Scholar, 34Thoreen C.C. Chantranupong L. Keys H.R. Wang T. Gray N.S. Sabatini D.M. A unifying model for mTORC1-mediated regulation of mRNA translation.Nature. 2012; 485: 109-113Crossref PubMed Scopus (1096) Google Scholar). This motif possesses a cysteine residue cap followed by 4 to 15 pyrimidines and a guanine/thymidine-rich sequence. Approximately one-third of transcripts possess a 5′TOP motif (33Hsieh A.C. Liu Y. Edlind M.P. Ingolia N.T. Janes M.R. Sher A. et al.The translational landscape of mTOR signalling steers cancer initiation and metastasis.Nature. 2012; 485: 55-61Crossref PubMed Scopus (1011) Google Scholar, 34Thoreen C.C. Chantranupong L. Keys H.R. Wang T. Gray N.S. Sabatini D.M. A unifying model for mTORC1-mediated regulation of mRNA translation.Nature. 2012; 485: 109-113Crossref PubMed Scopus (1096) Google Scholar). As DBA patients have ribosome insufficiency, we postulated that the NLK-mediated reduction in mTORC1 activity would further reduce protein translation in DBA erythroid cells and that 5′TOP-containing transcripts would be particularly affected. We arbitrarily selected 22 5′TOP-containing transcripts and 12 non 5′TOP transcripts that all demonstrated at least a 2-fold reduction in translation efficiency in ribosome insufficient cells and determined the rescue effect of NLK inhibition on them (Fig. S2A). Examination of the abundance of these transcripts in polysome-containing fractions (actively being translated) revealed only seven of the 34 transcripts demonstrated a rescue greater than 50% upon NLK suppression (Fig. S2B). Notably, all seven transcripts contained 5′TOP cap sequences. Transcripts containing a 5′TOP were rescued by an average of 32.95% while transcripts without a 5′TOP were rescued by an average of 4.75% (p = 0.0015) (Fig. 2B). Although far from comprehensive, our data are consistent with NLK exerting a specific impact on a subset of 5′TOP sequences, and that much of the influence of ribosome insufficiency on translation is mediated by other mechanisms. A genome-wide study also reported a trend toward 5′TOP sequences being disproportionally dysregulated in DBA (25Khajuria R.K. Munschauer M. Ulirsch J.C. Fiorini C. Ludwig L.S. McFarland S.K. et al.Ribosome levels selectively regulate translation and lineage commitment in human hematopoiesis.Cell. 2018; 173: 90-103.e119Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (256) Google Scholar). To confirm translation efficiency correlated with protein expression, we performed a Western blot analysis. We examined the protein expression of two transcripts that were suppressed in ribosome insufficiency but rescued by NLK inhibition (TFAM and ATG4), two transcripts that were suppressed by ribosome insufficiency but not impacted by NLK status (RPS6 and GATA1) and two transcripts not impacted by ribosome insufficiency or NLK (P38 or NLK). Protein expression and translation efficiency are highly correlated for all transcripts (Fig. S3). Within the subset of 5′TOP containing mRNAs that were strongly rescued by NLK inhibition were TFAM and PHB2, two critical regulators of mitochondrial biogenesis and erythropoiesis (21Liu X. Zhang Y. Ni M. Cao H. Signer R.A.J. Li D. et al.Regulation of mitochondrial biogenesis in erythropoiesis by mTORC1-mediated protein translation.Nat. Cell Biol. 2017; 19: 626-638Crossref PubMed Scopus (116) Google Scholar). TFAM was downregulated 4.1-fold (p = 0.001) in ribosome deficient cells but rescued 89.4% (p = 0.0032) by suppression of NLK. PHB2 is downregulated 6.3-fold (p = 0.0012) in ribosome insufficiency and rescued 63.1% (p = 0.0028) by NLK suppression (Fig. 2C). Transcription factor A, mitochondrial (TFAM) binds mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) to regulate packaging, stability, and replication of the mitochondrial genome (35Kang I. Chu C.T. Kaufman B.A. The mitochondrial transcription factor TFAM in neurodegeneration: emerging evidence and mechanisms.FEBS Lett. 2018; 592: 793-811Crossref PubMed Scopus (195) Google Scholar). Prohibin 2 (PHB2) functions within the nucleus, cytoplasm, and mitochondria. Of non-5′TOP sequences, NLK inhibition rescued CSDE1 by 36.1% but all other transcripts were rescued by less than 15% (Fig. 2D). We next specifically examined how ribosome insufficiency and NLK inhibition impact the translation efficiency of nuclear genes that are involved in mitochondrial biogenesis (of note, mitochondrial genes are translated by specific mitochondrial ribosomes that are not impacted by DBA (36Popov L.D. Mitochondrial biogenesis: an update.J. Cell Mol. Med. 2020; 24: 4892-4899Crossref PubMed Scopus (345) Google Scholar)). At day 5 of differentiation, we observed 12 mRNAs whose translation was reduced by at least 2-fold in RPS19 ribosome insufficient hematopoietic precursors including subunits of the ATP synthase complex, NADH: Ubiquinone Oxidoreductase complex, COX10, TFAM and PHB2 (Fig. S4A). No transcripts demonstrated differences at the mRNA level (Fig. 3A). Inhibition of NLK rescued the translation of five of these mRNAs (TFAM, PHB2, ATP5O, ATP5A1, and NDUFA3) by greater than 60% (shown in red) and an additional three mRNAs (ATP5E, NDUFA2, and ATP5B) by greater than 20% (shown in blue) (Fig. 3B). Six of the rescued mRNAs (TFAM, PHB2, ATP5O, ATP5E, ATP5A1, and NDUFA3) contain 5′TOP sequences and were rescued by NLK inhibition by an average of 72.6% (sd = 8.4%) (Fig. 3C). Six non 5′TOP-containing mRNAs were also rescued by NLK inhibition (NDUFA2, ATP5G1, NDUFA1, COX10, ATP5B and ATP5D) although this rescue was less than that observed for the 5′TOP containing mRNAs (Fig. 3D). Interestingly, all 12 DBA-impacted transcripts contained significantly shorter 5′UTR sequences (ranging from 21 to 121 nucleotides; see Fig. S4B); the average mRNA 5′UTR in humans is 210 nucleotides (37Araujo P.R. Yoon K. Ko D. Smith A.D. Qiao M. Suresh U. et al.Before it gets started: regulating translation at the 5' UTR.Comp. Funct. Genomics. 2012; 2012475731Crossref PubMed Scopus (180) Google Scholar). Collectively, these data demonstrate that a select group of mRNA transcripts containing a 5′TOP sequence or shorter 5′UTR sequence and enriched for genes involved in mitochondrial biogenesis are predominantly impacted by ribosome insufficiency. Of these mRNAs, a subset is impacted by NLK activation, with those containing a 5′TOP sequence more likely to be affected. As NLK activation and mTORC1 suppression in ribosome insufficient cells begins to peak at around day 5 in erythroid progenitors, we determined the total mRNA and ribosome-associated mRNA of the 6 NLK-responsive mRNA transcripts (TFAM, PHB2, ATP5O, ATP5E, ATP5A1 and NDUFA3) that are involved in mitochondrial biogenesis and dysregulated in RPS19 ribosome insufficient hematopoietic precursor cells at days 2, 5 and 8 of differentiation. Consistent with previous data, transcription of ATP5O (iii), ATP5E (iv), ATP5A1 (v) and NDUFA3 (vi) were moderately increased from day 2 to 5, but RPS19 mediated ribosome insufficiency had no impact. No significant increase in TFAM (i) (p = 0.294) or PHB2 (ii) (p = 0.5312) mRNA was observed (Fig. 3E). In contrast, polysome-bound mRNA analysis indicates significantly upregulated translation of all six transcripts from day 2 to day 5. TFAM (vii) translation increased 85.7% (p = 0.0087), PHB2 (v