Caveolin-1 is the principal structural protein of caveolae membranes in fibroblasts and endothelia. Recently, we have shown that the human CAV-1 gene is localized to a suspected tumor suppressor locus, and mutations in Cav-1 have been implicated in human cancer. Here, we created a caveolin-1 null (CAV-1 −/−) mouse model, using standard homologous recombination techniques, to assess the role of caveolin-1 in caveolae biogenesis, endocytosis, cell proliferation, and endothelial nitric-oxide synthase (eNOS) signaling. Surprisingly, Cav-1 null mice are viable. We show that these mice lack caveolin-1 protein expression and plasmalemmal caveolae. In addition, analysis of cultured fibroblasts from Cav-1 null embryos reveals the following: (i) a loss of caveolin-2 protein expression; (ii) defects in the endocytosis of a known caveolar ligand, i.e.fluorescein isothiocyanate-albumin; and (iii) a hyperproliferative phenotype. Importantly, these phenotypic changes are reversed by recombinant expression of the caveolin-1 cDNA. Furthermore, examination of the lung parenchyma (an endothelial-rich tissue) shows hypercellularity with thickened alveolar septa and an increase in the number of vascular endothelial growth factor receptor (Flk-1)-positive endothelial cells. As predicted, endothelial cells from Cav-1 null mice lack caveolae membranes. Finally, we examined eNOS signaling by measuring the physiological response of aortic rings to various stimuli. Our results indicate that eNOS activity is up-regulated in Cav-1 null animals, and this activity can be blunted by using a specific NOS inhibitor, nitro-l-arginine methyl ester. These findings are in accordance with previous in vitro studies showing that caveolin-1 is an endogenous inhibitor of eNOS. Thus, caveolin-1 expression is required to stabilize the caveolin-2 protein product, to mediate the caveolar endocytosis of specific ligands, to negatively regulate the proliferation of certain cell types, and to provide tonic inhibition of eNOS activity in endothelial cells. Caveolin-1 is the principal structural protein of caveolae membranes in fibroblasts and endothelia. Recently, we have shown that the human CAV-1 gene is localized to a suspected tumor suppressor locus, and mutations in Cav-1 have been implicated in human cancer. Here, we created a caveolin-1 null (CAV-1 −/−) mouse model, using standard homologous recombination techniques, to assess the role of caveolin-1 in caveolae biogenesis, endocytosis, cell proliferation, and endothelial nitric-oxide synthase (eNOS) signaling. Surprisingly, Cav-1 null mice are viable. We show that these mice lack caveolin-1 protein expression and plasmalemmal caveolae. In addition, analysis of cultured fibroblasts from Cav-1 null embryos reveals the following: (i) a loss of caveolin-2 protein expression; (ii) defects in the endocytosis of a known caveolar ligand, i.e.fluorescein isothiocyanate-albumin; and (iii) a hyperproliferative phenotype. Importantly, these phenotypic changes are reversed by recombinant expression of the caveolin-1 cDNA. Furthermore, examination of the lung parenchyma (an endothelial-rich tissue) shows hypercellularity with thickened alveolar septa and an increase in the number of vascular endothelial growth factor receptor (Flk-1)-positive endothelial cells. As predicted, endothelial cells from Cav-1 null mice lack caveolae membranes. Finally, we examined eNOS signaling by measuring the physiological response of aortic rings to various stimuli. Our results indicate that eNOS activity is up-regulated in Cav-1 null animals, and this activity can be blunted by using a specific NOS inhibitor, nitro-l-arginine methyl ester. These findings are in accordance with previous in vitro studies showing that caveolin-1 is an endogenous inhibitor of eNOS. Thus, caveolin-1 expression is required to stabilize the caveolin-2 protein product, to mediate the caveolar endocytosis of specific ligands, to negatively regulate the proliferation of certain cell types, and to provide tonic inhibition of eNOS activity in endothelial cells. caveolin-1 caveolin-2 caveolin-3 endothelial nitric-oxide synthase fluorescein isothiocyanate nitro-l-arginine methyl ester mitogen-activated protein epidermal growth factor EGF receptor vascular endothelial growth factor receptor monoclonal antibody kilobase pair base pair polymerase chain reaction mouse embryonic fibroblast polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis green fluorescent protein phosphate-buffered saline bovine serum albumin Dulbecco's modified Eagle's medium fetal bovine serum plaque-forming units knockout nitric oxide nitric-oxide synthase phenylephrine acetylcholine polyclonal antibody 4-morpholine-ethanesulfonic acid embryonic stem caveolin-1 scaffolding domain Caveolin was first identified in 1989 by Glenney and colleagues (1Glenney Jr., J.R. J. Biol. Chem. 1989; 264: 20163-20166Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Google Scholar, 2Glenney Jr., J.R. Zokas L. J. Cell Biol. 1989; 108: 2401-2408Crossref PubMed Scopus (388) Google Scholar) as a major v-Src substrate in Rous sarcoma virus-transformed chicken embryo fibroblasts. Interestingly, this same protein was found to be the primary structural component of caveolae microdomains, 50–100 nm vesicular invaginations of the plasma membrane (3Rothberg K.G. Heuser J.E. Donzell W.C. Ying Y.S. Glenney J.R. Anderson R.G. Cell. 1992; 68: 673-682Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (1910) Google Scholar). Caveolae were morphologically described as early as the 1950s by Yamada (4Yamada E. J. Biophys. Biochem. Cytol. 1955; 1: 445-458Crossref PubMed Scopus (541) Google Scholar) and Palade (5Farquhar M. Palade G. J. Cell Biol. 1963; 17: 375-412Crossref PubMed Scopus (2209) Google Scholar). They are curious structures that can be found individually or in clusters at the surfaces of numerous cell types, the best examples of which are adipocytes, endothelial cells, muscle cells, and fibroblasts. Research in the past decade has shown that caveolae are specialized membrane microdomains formed as a result of localized accumulation of cholesterol, glycosphingolipids, and caveolin (6Fra A.M. Williamson E. Simons K. Parton R.G. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci., U. S. A. 1995; 92: 8655-8659Crossref PubMed Scopus (532) Google Scholar, 7Li S. Song K.S. Koh S.S. Kikuchi A. Lisanti M.P. J. Biol. Chem. 1996; 271: 28647-28654Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (127) Google Scholar, 8Murata M. Peranen J. Schreiner R. Weiland F. Kurzchalia T. Simons K. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 1995; 92: 10339-10343Crossref PubMed Scopus (781) Google Scholar). Caveolin, an integral membrane protein that can directly bind cholesterol, most likely plays a major role in the invagination of caveolae from the plasma membrane proper, although our understanding of the mechanisms behind this process remains rudimentary. Two other members of the caveolin gene family have recently been identified and cloned, caveolin-2 and caveolin-3 (9Scherer P.E. Okamoto T. Chun M. Nishimoto I. Lodish H.F. Lisanti M.P. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 1996; 93: 131-135Crossref PubMed Scopus (501) Google Scholar, 10Song K.S. Scherer P.E. Tang Z.-L. Okamoto T. Li S. Chafel M. Chu C. Kohtz D.S. Lisanti M.P. J. Biol. Chem. 1996; 271: 15160-15165Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (621) Google Scholar); as a consequence, caveolin has been re-termed caveolin-1 (Cav-1).1 Caveolin-2 has the same tissue distribution as and co-localizes with caveolin-1, whereas caveolin-3 is expressed only in cardiac, skeletal, and smooth muscle cells (11Scherer P.E. Lewis R.Y. Volonte D. Engelman J.A. Galbiati F. Couet J. Kohtz D.S. van Donselaar E. Peters P. Lisanti M.P. J. Biol. Chem. 1997; 272: 29337-29346Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (479) Google Scholar, 12Tang Z.-L. Scherer P.E. Okamoto T. Song K. Chu C. Kohtz D.S. Nishimoto I. Lodish H.F. Lisanti M.P. J. Biol. Chem. 1996; 271: 2255-2261Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (616) Google Scholar). Although caveolae function in vesicular and cholesterol trafficking (13Galbiati F. Razani B. Lisanti M.P. Cell. 2001; 106: 403-411Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (519) Google Scholar, 14Razani B. Schlegel A. Lisanti M.P. J. Cell Sci. 2000; 113: 2103-2109Crossref PubMed Google Scholar), they have also been implicated in signal transduction at the plasma membrane (15Couet J. Li S. Okamoto T. Scherer P.S. Lisanti M.P. Trends Cardiovasc. Med. 1997; 7: 103-110Crossref PubMed Scopus (111) Google Scholar, 16Lisanti M.P. Scherer P. Tang Z.-L. Sargiacomo M. Trends Cell Biol. 1994; 4: 231-235Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (597) Google Scholar). Biochemical and morphological experiments have shown that a variety of lipid-modified signaling molecules are concentrated within these plasma membrane microdomains, such as Src family tyrosine kinases, Ha-Ras, eNOS, and heterotrimeric G-proteins (17Li S. Couet J. Lisanti M.P. J. Biol. Chem. 1996; 271: 29182-29190Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (681) Google Scholar, 18Song K.S. Li S. Okamoto T. Quilliam L. Sargiacomo M. Lisanti M.P. J. Biol. Chem. 1996; 271: 9690-9697Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (924) Google Scholar, 19Song K.S. Sargiacomo M. Galbiati F. Parenti M. Lisanti M.P. Cell. Mol. Biol. 1997; 43: 293-303PubMed Google Scholar, 20Garcia-Cardena G. Oh P. Liu J. Schnitzer J.E. Sessa W.C. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 1996; 93: 6448-6453Crossref PubMed Scopus (583) Google Scholar, 21Shaul P.W. Smart E.J. Robinson L.J. German Z. Yuhanna I.S. Ying Y. 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Both in vitro and cell culture experiments indicate that Cav-1 can directly interact with and maintain some of these signaling molecules in an inactive conformation (reviewed in Ref.23Okamoto T. Schlegel A. Scherer P.E. Lisanti M.P. J. Biol. Chem. 1998; 273: 5419-5422Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (1361) Google Scholar). In effect, Cav-1 seems to act as a scaffolding protein, able to negatively regulate the activity of other molecules by binding to and releasing them in a timely fashion. Research in the past few years has established a recurring theme in this regulation. Many of the proteins that either interact with, transcriptionally repress, or are inhibited by Cav-1 fall under the pro-proliferative, oncogenic, and anti-apoptotic category of molecules. Cav-1 interacts with and negatively regulates the EGF-R, platelet-derived growth factor receptor, and Neu tyrosine kinases (24Couet J. Sargiacomo M. Lisanti M.P. J. Biol. 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Taken together, the results described above have led many investigators to propose the possibility that Cav-1 is indeed a “tumor suppressor” whose reduction/deletion in cells would provide growth advantages and expedite tumorigenesis. In support of this idea, the only two methods thus far used to abolish Cav-1 expression have arrived at similar conclusions. Antisense-mediated down-regulation of Cav-1 in NIH-3T3 fibroblasts leads to a hyperactivation of the p42/44 MAP kinase pathway and anchorage-independent growth (48Galbiati F. Volonté D. Engelman J.A. Watanabe G. Burk R. Pestell R. Lisanti M.P. EMBO J. 1998; 17: 6633-6648Crossref PubMed Scopus (435) Google Scholar). An RNA interference-based ablation of Cav-1 in Caenorhabditis elegans leads to progression of the meiotic cell cycle, a phenotype that mirrors that of Ras activation (49Scheel J. Srinivasan J. Honnert U. Henske A. Kurzchalia T.V. Nat. Cell Biol. 1999; 1: 127-129Crossref PubMed Scopus (92) Google Scholar). Furthermore, a recent report indicates that the caveolin-1 gene is mutated in up to 16% of human breast cancer samples examined (50Hayashi K. Matsuda S. Machida K. Yamamoto T. Fukuda Y. Nimura Y. Hayakawa T. Hamaguchi M. Cancer Res. 2001; 61: 2361-2364PubMed Google Scholar). Recombinant expression of the caveolin-1 cDNA harboring this mutation (P132L) was sufficient to transform NIH 3T3 cells (50Hayashi K. Matsuda S. Machida K. Yamamoto T. Fukuda Y. Nimura Y. Hayakawa T. Hamaguchi M. Cancer Res. 2001; 61: 2361-2364PubMed Google Scholar). As similar results have been obtained previously using an antisense approach to ablate caveolin-1 expression (48Galbiati F. Volonté D. Engelman J.A. Watanabe G. Burk R. Pestell R. Lisanti M.P. EMBO J. 1998; 17: 6633-6648Crossref PubMed Scopus (435) Google Scholar), these results indicate that the caveolin-1 (P132L) mutation may behave in a dominant-negative fashion. Interestingly, an analogous mutation occurs within the caveolin-3 gene (P104L) in patients with a novel form of autosomal dominant limb-girdle muscular dystrophy (LGMD-1C) (51Minetti C. Sotgia F. Bruno C. Scartezzini P. Broda P. Bado M. Masetti E. Mazzocco P. Egeo A. Donati M.A. Volonte' D. Galbiati F. Cordone G. Bricarelli F.D. Lisanti M.P. Zara F. Nat. Genet. 1998; 18: 365-368Crossref PubMed Scopus (504) Google Scholar). In order to gain a better understanding of caveolae and caveolin-1 functioning in a mammalian organism, we used a gene targeting strategy to disrupt the Cav-1 locus in the mouse. In this way, we could observe the role Cav-1 plays in animal physiology (i.e. during development and into adult life) as well as molecularly (i.e. caveolar biogenesis, its interaction with caveolin-2, and its functional roles in endocytosis, cellular proliferation, and signal transduction). In this study, we describe the generation of mice lacking the cav-1 gene and determine some of the molecular side effects that result from a deficiency of Cav-1 expression. Undoubtedly, the generation of viable/fertile Cav-1-deficient mice (and cells derived from these animals) will allow us and others to critically evaluate the many proposed functions of caveolae organelles and the caveolin-1 protein in vivo. Antibodies and their sources were as follows: anti-caveolin-1 mAb 2297, anti-caveolin-2 mAb 65, and anti-caveolin-3 mAb 26 (10, 11, 52) (gifts of Dr. Roberto Campos-Gonzalez, BD Transduction Laboratories, Inc.); anti-caveolin-1 pAb N-20 (Santa Cruz Biotechnology); anti-p42/44 pAb and phospho-specific anti-p42/44 pAb (New England Biolabs); anti-β-tubulin mAb TUB-2.1 and anti-β-actin mAb AC-15 (Sigma). A variety of other reagents were purchased commercially as follows: cell culture reagents and the LipofectAMINE liposomal transfection reagent were from Life Technologies, Inc. Genomic clones containing the murine Cav-1 locus were isolated from a 129/Sv(J1) λ-phage genomic library (53Wu H. Liu X. Jaenisch R. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 1994; 91: 2819-2823Crossref PubMed Scopus (98) Google Scholar, 54Wu H. Liu X. Jaenisch R. Lodish H.F. Cell. 1995; 83: 59-67Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (870) Google Scholar) by using probes corresponding to the murine Cav-1 cDNA. The genomic organization of the locus was determined by subcloning portions of these genomic inserts into the vector pBS-SK+ (Stratagene) and using Southern blotting to determine a detailed restriction map of the region (55Engelman J.A. Zhang X.L. Galbiati F. Lisanti M.P. FEBS Lett. 1998; 429: 330-336Crossref PubMed Scopus (135) Google Scholar). One of the genomic clones (containing the first and second exons of Cav-1) was used to construct the targeting vector. Briefly, a 2.7-kbNotI-EcoRI fragment that is immediately 5′ to the first exon and a 2.1-kb BamHI-BamHI fragment that is immediately 3′ to the second exon of the cav-1 gene were used to flank the NEO cassette in the targeting vector pGT-N29 (New England Biolabs) (as shown in Fig. 1). WW6 ES cells (gift of Dr. Pamela Stanley (56Ioffe E. Liu Y. Bhaumik M. Poirier F. Factor S.M. Stanley P. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 1995; 92: 7357-7361Crossref PubMed Scopus (66) Google Scholar)) were electroporated with the linearized targeting construct (40 μg) and selected with G418 (150 μg/ml of active component, Life Technologies, Inc.) as described previously (57Edelmann W. Yang K. Umar A. Heyer J. Lau K. Fan K. Liedtke W. Cohen P.E. Kane M.F. Lipford J.R. Yu N. Crouse G.F. Pollard J.W. Kunkel T. Lipkin M. Kolodner R. Kucherlapati R. Cell. 1997; 91: 467-477Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (308) Google Scholar). Homologous recombination in 360 selected ES clones was assessed via Southern blot analysis. Briefly, genomic DNA was digested with PstI orXbaI and hybridized with a 1.1-kbXbaI-SacI probe; Cav-1+/− clones produced an 8.0-kb wild-type and a 5.5-kb knockout band (PstI digest) or a 10.0-kb wild-type and a 4.0-kb knockout band (XbaI digest) (as shown in Fig. 1). Four Cav-1+/− ES clones were microinjected into C57BL/6 blastocysts, and three gave rise to male chimeras with a significant ES cell contribution (as determined by an Agouti coat color). By mating with C57BL/6 females and genotyping of offspring tail DNA via Southern and PCR analysis, germ line transmission was confirmed for two separate clones (Fig. 1). F1 male and female heterozygous animals were interbred to obtain Cav-1-deficient animals. To facilitate the genotyping of all future mice, we also devised a 3-primer PCR-based screening strategy. The wild-type specific forward primer was derived from Cav-1 exon 2 (5′-GTGTATGACGCGCACACCAAG-3′); the knockout-specific forward primer was derived from the neomycin cassette (5′-CTAGTGAGACGTGCTACTTCC-3′), and the common reverse primer was derived from Cav-1 intron 2 (5′-CTTGAGTTCTGTTAGCCCAG-3′). PCR conditions were 95 °C/5 min, 35 cycles of (95 °C/1 min, 56 °C/1 min, 72 °C/1 min 20 s) and then 72 °C/7 min, which resulted in a ∼650-bp wild-type band and a ∼330-bp knockout band. Animals were analyzed at 2–4.5 months of age. Experiments were conducted under the direct supervision of the trained veterinarians of the Einstein Animal Institute, and animal protocols were approved by the Animal Use Committee. Primary MEFs were obtained from Day 13.5 embryos essentially as described (58Kamijo T. Zindy F. Roussel M.F. Quelle D.E. Downing J.R. Ashmun R.A. Grosveld G. Sherr C.J. Cell. 1997; 91: 649-659Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (1396) Google Scholar). Briefly, embryos were decapitated, thoroughly minced, and trypsinized in 1 ml of 0.05% trypsin, 0.53 mm EDTA (Life Technologies, Inc.) for 20 min at 37 °C. Ten ml of complete medium (Dulbecco's modified Eagle's medium (DMEM) supplemented with 10% fetal bovine serum (FBS), 2 mmglutamine, 100 units/ml penicillin, and 100 μg/ml streptomycin (Life Technologies, Inc.)) was used to inactivate the trypsin and resuspend the dissociated cells. Cells were plated on a 10-cm plate and cultured in a 37 °C, 5% CO2 incubator. These “passage 1” cells were further propagated using a defined 3T3 passaging protocol (i.e. 3 × 105 cells were plated per 60-mm dish every 3 days). For all experiments early passage primary MEFs (<5) were used. To immortalize MEFs, cells were passaged according to the 3T3 protocol continuously until growth rates in culture resumed the rapid rates seen in early passage MEFs (i.e. Passage 25 cells and beyond). MEFs were fixed with 2.5% glutaraldehyde in 0.1 m cacodylate buffer post-fixed with OsO4, and stained with uranyl acetate and lead citrate. A cryotome was used to yield sections, and the samples were examined under a JEOL 1200EX transmission electron microscope and photographed at a magnification of × 16,000 (59Sargiacomo M. Sudol M. Tang Z.-L. Lisanti M.P. J. Cell Biol. 1993; 122: 789-807Crossref PubMed Scopus (879) Google Scholar, 60Lisanti M.P. Scherer P.E. Vidugiriene J. Tang Z.-L. Hermanoski-Vosatka A. Tu Y.-H. Cook R.F. Sargiacomo M. J. Cell Biol. 1994; 126: 111-126Crossref PubMed Scopus (826) Google Scholar, 61Engelman J.A. Wycoff C.C. Yasuhara S. Song K.S. Okamoto T. Lisanti M.P. J. Biol. Chem. 1997; 272: 16374-16381Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (337) Google Scholar). Caveolae were identified by their characteristic flask shape, size (50–100 nm), and location at or near the plasma membrane (28Koleske A.J. Baltimore D. Lisanti M.P. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 1995; 92: 1381-1385Crossref PubMed Scopus (475) Google Scholar). The cDNA encoding full-length caveolin-1 was subcloned into pCB7, a mammalian expression vector driven by the cytomegalovirus promoter (62Song K.S. Tang Z.-L. Li S. Lisanti M.P. J. Biol. Chem. 1997; 272: 4398-4403Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (154) Google Scholar). The cDNAs encoding GFP and GFP-Cav-1 (containing the full-length Cav-1 cDNA C-terminal to GFP) were as described previously (63Volonte D. Galbiati F. Lisanti M.P. FEBS Lett. 1999; 445: 431-439Crossref PubMed Scopus (61) Google Scholar). Cells were cultured in their respective media and allowed to reach 80–90% confluency. Subsequently, they were washed with PBS and incubated with lysis buffer (10 mmTris, pH 7.5; 50 mm NaCl; 1% Triton X-100; 60 mm octyl glucoside) containing protease inhibitors (Roche Molecular Biochemicals). Protein concentrations were quantified using the BCA reagent (Pierce), and the volume required for 10 μg of protein was determined. Samples were separated by SDS-PAGE (12.5% acrylamide) and transferred to nitrocellulose. The nitrocellulose membranes were stained with Ponceau S (to visualize protein bands) followed by immunoblot analysis. All subsequent wash buffers contained 10 mm Tris, pH 8.0, 150 mm NaCl, 0.05% Tween 20, which was supplemented with 1% bovine serum albumin (BSA) and 2% nonfat dry milk (Carnation) for the blocking solution and 1% BSA for the antibody diluent. Primary antibodies were used at a 1:500 dilution. Horseradish peroxidase-conjugated secondary antibodies (1:5000 dilution, Pierce) were used to visualize bound primary antibodies with the Supersignal chemiluminescence substrate (Pierce). Caveolae-enriched membrane fractions were purified essentially as we described previously (59Sargiacomo M. Sudol M. Tang Z.-L. Lisanti M.P. J. Cell Biol. 1993; 122: 789-807Crossref PubMed Scopus (879) Google Scholar). 200 mg of lung tissue was placed in 2 ml of MBS (25 mm Mes, pH 6.5, 150 mm NaCl) containing 1% Triton X-100 and solubilized by using quick 10-s bursts of a rotor homogenizer and passing 10 times through a loose fitting Dounce homogenizer. The sample was mixed with an equal volume of 80% sucrose (prepared in MBS lacking Triton X-100), transferred to a 12-ml ultracentrifuge tube, and overlaid with a discontinuous sucrose gradient (4 ml of 30% sucrose, 4 ml of 5% sucrose, both prepared in MBS, lacking detergent). The samples were subjected to centrifugation at 200,000 × g (39,000 rpm in a Sorval rotor TH-641) for 16 h. A light scattering band was observed at the 5–30% sucrose interface. Twelve 1-ml fractions were collected, and 50-μl aliquots of each fraction were subjected to SDS-PAGE and immunoblotting. The procedure was performed as we described previously (17Li S. Couet J. Lisanti M.P. J. Biol. Chem. 1996; 271: 29182-29190Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (681) Google Scholar). MEFs (either un-transfected or transfected with the caveolin-1 cDNA) were fixed for 30 min in PBS containing 2% paraformaldehyde, rinsed with PBS, and quenched with 50 mm NH4Cl for 10 min. The cells were then incubated in permeabilization buffer (PBS; 0.2% BSA; 0.1% Triton X-100) for 10 min, washed with PBS, and double-labeled with a 1:400 dilution of anti-caveolin-1 pAb N-20 and 1:200 dilution of anti-caveolin-2 mAb for 60 min. After rinsing with PBS (3 times), secondary antibodies (7.5 μg/ml) ((lissamine-rhodamine-conjugated goat anti-rabbit and fluorescein (FITC)-conjugated goat anti-mouse) antibodies (Ja