The glycosaminoglycan hyaluronan is a key substrate for cell migration in tissues during inflammation, wound healing, and neoplasia. Unlike other matrix components, hyaluronan (HA) is turned over rapidly, yet most degradation occurs not locally but within distant lymph nodes, through mechanisms that are not yet understood. While it is not clear which receptors are involved in binding and uptake of hyaluronan within the lymphatics, one likely candidate is the lymphatic endothelial hyaluronan receptor LYVE-1 recently described in our laboratory (Banerji, S., Ni, J., Wang, S., Clasper, S., Su, J., Tammi, R., Jones, M., and Jackson, D.G. (1999)J. Cell Biol. 144, 789–801). Here we present evidence that LYVE-1 is involved in the uptake of hyaluronan by lymphatic endothelial cells using a new murine LYVE-1 orthologue identified from the EST data base. We show that mouse LYVE-1 both binds and internalizes hyaluronan in transfected 293T fibroblasts in vitro and demonstrate using immunoelectron microscopy that it is distributed equally among the luminal and abluminal surfaces of lymphatic vessels in vivo. In addition, we show by means of specific antisera that expression of mouse LYVE-1 remains restricted to the lymphatics in homozygous knockout mice lacking a functional gene for CD44, the closest homologue of LYVE-1 and the only other Link superfamily HA receptor known to date. Together these results suggest a role for LYVE-1 in the transport of HA from tissue to lymph and imply that further novel hyaluronan receptors must exist that can compensate for the loss of CD44 function. The glycosaminoglycan hyaluronan is a key substrate for cell migration in tissues during inflammation, wound healing, and neoplasia. Unlike other matrix components, hyaluronan (HA) is turned over rapidly, yet most degradation occurs not locally but within distant lymph nodes, through mechanisms that are not yet understood. While it is not clear which receptors are involved in binding and uptake of hyaluronan within the lymphatics, one likely candidate is the lymphatic endothelial hyaluronan receptor LYVE-1 recently described in our laboratory (Banerji, S., Ni, J., Wang, S., Clasper, S., Su, J., Tammi, R., Jones, M., and Jackson, D.G. (1999)J. Cell Biol. 144, 789–801). Here we present evidence that LYVE-1 is involved in the uptake of hyaluronan by lymphatic endothelial cells using a new murine LYVE-1 orthologue identified from the EST data base. We show that mouse LYVE-1 both binds and internalizes hyaluronan in transfected 293T fibroblasts in vitro and demonstrate using immunoelectron microscopy that it is distributed equally among the luminal and abluminal surfaces of lymphatic vessels in vivo. In addition, we show by means of specific antisera that expression of mouse LYVE-1 remains restricted to the lymphatics in homozygous knockout mice lacking a functional gene for CD44, the closest homologue of LYVE-1 and the only other Link superfamily HA receptor known to date. Together these results suggest a role for LYVE-1 in the transport of HA from tissue to lymph and imply that further novel hyaluronan receptors must exist that can compensate for the loss of CD44 function. hyaluronan lymphatic vessel endothelial HA receptor-1 fluorescein isothiocyanate polymerase chain reaction enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay phosphate-buffered saline HA receptor for endocytosis The extracellular matrix glycosaminoglycan hyaluronan (HA)1 is a large polymer ofN-acetyl-d-glucosamine andd-glucuronic acid (molecular mass 105-107 Da) which plays an important role in maintaining tissue integrity as well as facilitating the migration of cells during inflammation, wound repair, and embryonic development (1Laurent T.C. Fraser J.R. FASEB J. 1992; 6: 2397-2404Crossref PubMed Scopus (2086) Google Scholar,2Lee J.Y. Spicer A.P. Curr. Opin. Cell Biol. 2000; 12: 581-586Crossref PubMed Scopus (453) Google Scholar). By comparison with other macromolecules of the extracellular matrix, HA undergoes rapid turnover with a half-life of ∼24 h (1Laurent T.C. Fraser J.R. FASEB J. 1992; 6: 2397-2404Crossref PubMed Scopus (2086) Google Scholar). Intriguingly, most degradation occurs not locally, but within distant lymph nodes. During this process, tissue HA enters the afferent lymphatic vessels and is transported with the lymph fluid to the draining lymph nodes where ∼90% of the glycosaminoglycan is degraded by unknown mechanisms (3Fraser J.R. Kimpton W.G. Laurent T.C. Cahill R.N. Vakakis N. Biochem. J. 1988; 256: 153-158Crossref PubMed Scopus (161) Google Scholar, 4Fraser J.R. Laurent T.C. CIBA Found. Symp. 1989; 143: 41-53PubMed Google Scholar). The remaining 10–15% of the HA exits via the efferent lymphatics to the blood vasculature where it is rapidly endocytosed by the liver sinusoid endothelial HA receptor (5Yannariello-Brown J. McGary C.T. Weigel P.H. J. Cell. Biochem. 1992; 48: 73-80Crossref PubMed Scopus (17) Google Scholar), a 300-kDa heterotrimeric complex of α, β, and γ subunits that clears not only HA but also chondroitin and heparan sulfate from the circulation (6Zhou B. Oka J.A. Singh A. Weigel P.H. J. Biol. Chem. 1999; 274: 33831-33834Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (59) Google Scholar). While it is clear that HA can rapidly permeate the lymphatics in skin and other tissues (7Brown T.J. Alcorn D. Fraser J.R. J. Invest. Dermatol. 1999; 113: 740-746Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (85) Google Scholar), the mechanisms responsible for its transport across lymphatic endothelium, and the receptors involved in its uptake and transport within lymphatic vessels are all unknown. The majority of HA-binding proteins (8Toole B.P. Curr. Opin. Cell Biol. 1990; 2: 839-844Crossref PubMed Scopus (393) Google Scholar, 9Knudson C.B. Knudson W. FASEB J. 1993; 7: 1233-1241Crossref PubMed Scopus (601) Google Scholar) identified to date belong to the Link protein superfamily, defined by the presence of a conserved HA-binding domain known as the Link module (10Neame P.J. Barry F.P. Experientia (Basel). 1993; 49: 393-402Crossref PubMed Scopus (110) Google Scholar, 11Day A.J. Biochem. Soc. Trans. 1999; 27: 115-121Crossref PubMed Scopus (76) Google Scholar). This is a unit of ∼100 amino acids that contains four conserved cysteine residues interspersed with tracts of both hydrophobic and charged residues. The three-dimensional structure of the Link module closely resembles that of the C-type lectin fold, comprising two β sheets flanked by two short α helices and stabilized by two disulfide linkages enclosing a central hydrophobic core (12Kohda D. Morton C.J. Parkar A.A. Hatanaka H. Inagaki F.M. Campbell I.D. Day A.J. Cell. 1996; 86: 767-775Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (266) Google Scholar, 13Brissett N.C. 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Med. 1996; 183: 1119-1130Crossref PubMed Scopus (364) Google Scholar, 30De Grendele H.C. Estess P. Siegelman M.H. Science. 1997; 278: 672-675Crossref PubMed Scopus (481) Google Scholar, 31Mohamadzadeh M. DeGrendele H. Arizpe H. Estess P. Siegelman M. J. Clin. Invest. 1998; 101: 97-108Crossref PubMed Scopus (273) Google Scholar) and to mediate dendritic cell migration in inflamed skin (32Weiss J.M. Sleeman J. Renkl A.C. Dittmar H. Termeer C.C. Taxis S. Howells N. Hofmann M. Kohler G. Schopf E. Ponta H. Herrlich P. Simon J.C. J. Cell Biol. 1997; 137: 1137-1147Crossref PubMed Scopus (159) Google Scholar). Yet the unique involvement of CD44 in the aforementioned processes has been called into question by the demonstration that homozygous CD44−/− mice contain no obvious defects in either the vascular or lymphatic systems (33Schmits R. Filmus J. Gerwin N. Senaldi G. Kiefer F. Kundig T. Wakeham A. Shahinian A. Catzavelos C. Rak J. Furlonger C. Zakarian A. Simard J.J. Ohashi P.S. Paige C.J. 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These initial studies revealed that the human LYVE-1 molecule binds HA with a high degree of specificity and suggested a role for the receptor in sequestering HA on the luminal surface of lymphatic vessels. To explore such possibilities in an animal model (see also Refs. 36Mandriota S. Jussila L. Jeltsch M. Compagni A. Baetens D. Prevo R. Banerji S. Huarte J. Montesano R. Jackson D.G. Orci L. Alitalo K. Christofori G. Pepper M.S. EMBO J. 2001; 20: 672-682Crossref PubMed Scopus (835) Google Scholar, 37Skobe M. Hawighorst T. Jackson D.G. Janes L. Velasco P. Riccardi L. Claffey K. Detmar M. Nat. Med. 2001; 7: 192-198Crossref PubMed Scopus (1504) Google Scholar, 38Stacker S.A. Caesar C. Baldwin M.E. Thornton G.E. Jackson D.G. Prevo R. Kubo H. Achen M.G. Nat. Med. 2001; 7: 186-191Crossref PubMed Scopus (1063) Google Scholar, 39Makinen T. Jussila L. Veikkola T. Karpanen T. Kettunen M.I. Pulkkanen K.J. Kauppinen R. Jackson D.G. Kubo H. Nishikawa S.I. Yla-Herttuala S. Alitalo K. Nat. Med. 2001; 7: 199-205Crossref PubMed Scopus (643) Google Scholar, 40Jackson D.G. Anticancer Res. 2001; 7: 1-5Google Scholar, 69Jackson D.G. Prevo R. Clasper S. Banerji S. Trends Immunol. 2001; 22: 317-321Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (285) Google Scholar, 70Jackson D.G. Prevo R. Ni J. Banerji S. Kennedy J.F. Hyaluronan 2000. Woodhead Publishing,in press, Abington, Cambridge2001Google Scholar) we have isolated a murine LYVE-1 orthologue and here we describe its detailed characterization together with sequence comparisons that predict important similarities with the related CD44 molecule. Intriguingly, we have found that mouse LYVE-1 mediates internalization of HA and is located on both the luminal and abluminal faces of lymphatic endothelial cells. The implications of these findings for the function of LYVE-1 in vivo are discussed. The transformed human primary embryonal kidney cell line 293T was obtained from the Imperial Cancer Research Fund Cell Bank, Clare Hall, United Kingdom. The eukaryotic expression vector pRcCMV was from InVitrogen, Groningen, The Netherlands. The pCDM7Ig vector for soluble Ig fusion protein expression was kindly provided by Dr. Alejandro Aruffo, Bristol-Myers Squibb, Seattle, WA. Rat monoclonal antibody to mouse CD34 (RAM34) was obtained from PharMingen. Texas RedTM-conjugated goat anti-rabbit was purchased from Southern Biotechnologies. FITC-conjugated goat anti-rabbit Ig and phycoerythrin-conjugated goat anti-rabbit Ig were obtained from Sigma. Alexa 488-conjugated goat anti-rat was from Molecular Probes (Eugene, OR). Horseradish peroxidase-conjugated goat anti-rabbit and horseradish peroxidase-conjugated goat anti-human IgG were from Pierce. High molecular weight hyaluronan from rooster comb (catalog number H-5388), 1-ethyl-3-(3-dimethylaminopropyl)carbodiimide (EDAC), and Saponin were obtained from Sigma. Biotin-LC-hydrazide was obtained from Pierce. Chondroitin 4-sulfate, chondroitin 6-sulfate, and heparan sulfate were from Sigma. An intracellular adhesion molecule-2 fusion protein containing the extracellular domain of intracellular adhesion molecule-2 fused to the Fc domain of human IgG1 was kindly donated by Dr. S. Adams (Molecular Parasitology Group, University of Oxford). Homozygous CD44−/− knockout mice (33Schmits R. Filmus J. Gerwin N. Senaldi G. Kiefer F. Kundig T. Wakeham A. Shahinian A. Catzavelos C. Rak J. Furlonger C. Zakarian A. Simard J.J. Ohashi P.S. Paige C.J. Gutierrez-Ramos J.C. Mak T.W. Blood. 1997; 90: 2217-2233Crossref PubMed Google Scholar) bred on the C57Bl/6 background and wild-type C57Bl/6 controls were obtained from the MRC Center for Inflammation Research, University of Edinburgh, UK. Mice were sacrificed by cervical dislocation and the organs dissected and formalin-fixed by Dr. Ian Dransfield, (University of Edinburgh, United Kingdom). These were prepared for microscopy as described below. The amino acid sequence of human LYVE-1 was used to search for murine homologues within the mouse EST data base using the NCBI BlastSearch tool via the TBlastN program. The search yielded four overlapping ESTs, AI006667,AI391129, AI226003, and AA8820234, which together encoded a contiguous open reading frame of 957 base pairs bearing significant homology to the human sequence. The coding sequence and flanking 5′- and 3′-untranslated regions were then amplified from mouse lung cDNA in a two-stage PCR reaction using nested primers as follows. In the first round of amplification (1 min 94 °C, 2 min 57 °C, 4 min 72 °C, 33 cycles), the primers 190F (GTCTCCCTTACTGCGGGTGG) and 1407R (CTCTCTGGTCTGCTGTGAGCC) were used (nucleotides numbered as in Fig.1 A) with 1 μl of mouse lung cDNA (41Screaton G.R. Bell M.V. Bell J.I. Jackson D.G. J. Biol. Chem. 1993; 268: 12235-12238Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Google Scholar) in a reaction mixture (50 μl) containing 10 mm Tris-HCl, pH 8.3, 50 mm KCl, 2.5 mm MgCl2, 1 mm dNTPs and 2.5 units of Pyrococcus furiosus(Pfu) DNA polymerase. In the second round of amplification, 4 μl of the first round product was used as template in a similar reaction using the primers 229F Hind (CGCGAAGCTTGGGATCTGCACAATGCTCCAG) and 1231R Not (AGAGAAAAGGGCGGCCGCTTGCCTCGTGTGCACTTTCTCC). The restriction sites in each case are underlined. After digestion withHindIII and NotI, the PCR product was ligated into HindIII/NotI cut pRcCMV. The cloned construct was then sequenced on both strands to confirm its integrity.Figure 1Nucleotide and deduced amino acid sequence of murine LYVE-1 and comparison with the human orthologue. Panel A shows nucleotide (nucleotides 1–1440) and deduced amino acid sequence from the 1516-base pair mouse LYVE-1 cDNA identified by BlastSearching the mouse EST data base and subsequently cloned from mouse lung cDNA (see "Experimental Procedures"). The predicted N-terminal leader and C-terminal transmembrane anchor areunderlined and two motifs for potentialN-glycosylation are boxed. Panel B shows an alignment of the amino acid sequences for mouse LYVE-1, human LYVE-1, and human CD44 generated with the GCG programs Pileup and PrettyPlot with similar residues highlighted in yellow. The solid blue line indicates the consensus Link module. Key cysteine residues are highlighted and indicated by colored circles. These are as follows; the four highly conserved structural cysteines of the Link module (red); the two conserved flanking cysteines essential for folding and function of CD44 Link (green); a conserved cysteine within the transmembrane anchor implicated for receptor dimerization and HA-binding in CD44 (violet) and a seventh free cysteine unique to LYVE-1 (blue). Conserved residues within the LYVE-1 Link module equivalent to those implicated in CD44 HA-binding are highlighted with orange arrowheads. In addition, a conserved tract of basic residues downstream of the Link module in mouse and human LYVE-1 and a similar tract in CD44 that forms an extension to the HA-binding domain are highlighted with pink arrowheads.View Large Image Figure ViewerDownload Hi-res image Download (PPT) A Northern blot containing a variety of normal mouse tissue RNAs (2 μg of poly(A)+mRNA/lane) was purchased from CLONTECH and hybridized in ExpressHyb solution (CLONTECH) with a probe encompassing the extracellular domain of mouse LYVE-1 (694 base pairs) labeled with [α-32P]dCTP (Amersham Pharmacia Biotech) by random hexamer-primed labeling (Merck). Blots were washed according to the manufacturer's instructions in 2 × SSC, 0.05% SDS at room temperature for 30 min and in 0.1 × SSC, 0.1% SDS at 50 °C for 40 min followed by autoradiography. After stripping in 0.5% SDS (100 °C), blots were re-probed with human β-actin cDNA (supplied by the manufacturer). The extracellular domain of mouse LYVE-1 including the cleavable N-terminal leader (residues 1–228, MLQHTS … FKNEAAG in Fig. 1 B) was amplified from mouse stomach cDNA (41Screaton G.R. Bell M.V. Bell J.I. Jackson D.G. J. Biol. Chem. 1993; 268: 12235-12238Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Google Scholar) by nested PCR. Reactions (1 μl of cDNA template) were performed as described above for full-length LYVE-1 using the primers 190F (GTCTCCCTTACTGCGGGTGG) and 994R (CAGCCAGCACAGCGGCAGC; 1 min 94 °C, 1 min 59 °C, 3 min 72 °C, 33 cycles) followed by the primers 229F Hind (CGCGAAGCTTGGGATCTGCACAATGCTCCAG) and 923R Bam (GGTCGGGATCCCCAGCTGCTTCGTTCTTGAATG; 1 min 94 °C, 1 min 57 °C, 3 min 72 °C, 33 cycles) using 2.5 units of Pfu polymerase (nucleotides numbered as in Fig. 1 A). After digestion withHindIII and BamHI the PCR product was ligated into HindIII/BamHI cut pCDM7Ig vector yielding a construct encoding the first 228 amino acids of mouse LYVE-1 fused to the Fc region of human IgG1. The cloned construct was sequenced on both strands to confirm integrity. For expression and purification of the Fc fusion protein, the construct was transfected into 293T cells using calcium phosphate and transfectants grown in UltraCHO medium (Bio-Whittaker) for 3 days prior to harvesting the culture supernatant. After adjustment of the pH by the addition of 0.05 volumes of 2 m Tris-HCl buffer, pH 8.0, the fusion protein was purified by affinity chromatography on a column (1-ml bed volume) of protein A-Sepharose (Sigma) eluted with 0.1m glycine-HCl buffer, pH 3.0. Fractions containing Fc fusion protein were neutralized by the addition of 0.05 volume of 2m Tris-HCl buffer, pH 8.0, and the purity confirmed by SDS-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. High molecular weight HA was biotinylated by a modification of the method of Yu and Toole (42Yu Q. Toole B.P. BioTechniques. 1995; 19: 122-128PubMed Google Scholar) exactly as described previously (35Banerji S. Ni J. Wang S.-X. Clasper S. Su J. Tammi R. Jones M. Jackson D.G. J. Cell Biol. 1999; 144: 789-801Crossref PubMed Scopus (1310) Google Scholar). Conjugation of HA with FITC was carried out using the method of De Belder and Wik (43de Belder A.N. Wik K.O. Carbohydrate Res. 1975; 44: 251-257Crossref PubMed Scopus (174) Google Scholar). Binding of mouse LYVE-1 fusion protein to immobilized HA was tested in 96-well ELISA plates (Nunc Maxisorp) as described previously (35Banerji S. Ni J. Wang S.-X. Clasper S. Su J. Tammi R. Jones M. Jackson D.G. J. Cell Biol. 1999; 144: 789-801Crossref PubMed Scopus (1310) Google Scholar). Plates were coated by overnight incubation with 1 mg/ml HA in coating buffer (15 mm sodium carbonate and 34 mm sodium bicarbonate, pH 9.3). Wells were blocked for 2 h in PBS, 1% (w/v) bovine serum albumin, 0.05% (v/v) Tween 20, and subsequently incubated with purified mouse LYVE-1 Fc fusion protein (62.5–1000 ng/ml) in PBS, 0.05% Tween 20 for 1 h at room temperature. Human LYVE-1 Fc (35Banerji S. Ni J. Wang S.-X. Clasper S. Su J. Tammi R. Jones M. Jackson D.G. J. Cell Biol. 1999; 144: 789-801Crossref PubMed Scopus (1310) Google Scholar) and intracellular adhesion molecule-2 Fc fusion proteins were used as positive and negative controls, respectively. After washing (3 times with PBS, once with PBS, 0.05% Tween 20), bound fusion protein was detected with horseradish peroxidase-conjugated goat anti-human IgG (1:4000; Pierce) followed byo-phenylenediamine substrate (Sigma). Subsequently, absorbance at 490 nm was measured in a Bio-Rad microplate reader. Competition experiments with free glycosaminoglycans including HA, chondroitin 4-sulfate, chondroitin 6-sulfate, and heparan sulfate were performed by preincubating the mouse LYVE-1 Fc fusion protein (10 μg/ml) with the appropriate glycosaminoglycan (3.13–100 μg/ml) for 30 min in PBS, 0.05% Tween 20. The mixtures were subsequently added to 96-well HA-coated plates and bound fusion protein was detected as described above. For binding of LYVE-1 to soluble HA, 96-well plates were first coated overnight with either mouse or human LYVE-1 fusion protein or a control syndecan-2 Fc fusion protein (62.5–1000 ng/ml in coating buffer) followed by blocking and washing as described above. The wells were then incubated with biotinylated HA (5 μg/ml) in PBS, 0.05% Tween 20 (with or without a 20-fold molar excesss of unlabeled HA as a control for specificity) and bound biotinylated-HA detected using horseradish peroxidase-conjugated avidin (1:500; DAKO) witho-phenylenediamine as substrate. Binding was measured as the absorbance at 490 nm. For binding of HA to LYVE-1-transfected cells (see below), these were incubated (20 min, 25 °C) in PBS, pH 7.5, containing FITC-conjugated HA (25 μg/ml), 0.1% azide, and 5% fetal calf serum followed by washing (×3) in PBS alone. Cells were then fixed in 2% formaldehyde, mounted with fluorescent mounting medium, and viewed under a Zeiss Axioskop microscope equipped with epifluorescent illumination. Human 293T cells in 12-well plates were transfected with full-length mouse or in some cases human LYVE-1 (35Banerji S. Ni J. Wang S.-X. Clasper S. Su J. Tammi R. Jones M. Jackson D.G. J. Cell Biol. 1999; 144: 789-801Crossref PubMed Scopus (1310) Google Scholar) in pRcCMV (2 μg/well) using calcium phosphate precipitation. For flow cytometric analysis of ligand internalization, triplicate wells were incubated with FITC-HA (1–10 μg/ml) alone or in the presence of a 500-fold molar excess of unconjugated HA (control) for 0–5 h at 37 °C. After appropriate time intervals, cells were washed briefly with ice-cold PBS and detached by suspension in ice-cold PBS, 5 mm EDTA with gentle pipetting. One-half of each detached cell sample was then fixed directly in 4% (w/v) paraformaldehyde in PBS (to determine total HA accumulation) and the other digested with papain (0.5 mg/ml) for 45 min at 37 °C to remove cell surface LYVE-1·HA complexes followed by fixation (to determine internalized HA). The efficiency of LYVE-1 cleavage under the latter conditions was assessed by staining cells before and after papain treatment with polyclonal anti-mouse LYVE-1 (1/500) followed by phycoerythrin-conjugated goat anti-rabbit Ig. In each case fluorescence was quantitated by flow cytometry using a Becton-Dickinson FacScan. For analysis of HA internalization by immunofluorescence microscopy, cells were prepared as described for flow cytometry except that cell surface LYVE-1 was stained using Texas Red-conjugated goat anti-rabbit Ig rather than a phycoerythrin conjugate. Slides were then viewed using a Zeiss Axiophot microscope equipped with epifluorescent illumination. For analysis of LYVE-1/HA internalization by confocal microscopy, transfectants were incubated (5 h, 37 °C) with FITC-HA (10 μg/ml) and antibodies to either mouse or human LYVE-1 (diluted 1/500). Cells were then fixed (10 min, room temperature) in 4% (w/v) paraformaldehyde and permeabilized with 0.25% (w/v) saponin, in PBS, pH 7.5, containing 1% bovine serum albumin and 1% fetal calf serum (30 min, room temperature) prior to the addition of Texas RedTM anti-Ig conjugate. Slides were viewed on a Bio-Rad Radiance 2000 laser scanning confocal microscope equipped with argon and green helium/neon lasers. Rabbits were immunized by subcutaneous injection with purified mouse LYVE-1 fusion protein (100 μg) in complete Freund's adjuvant followed by two further injections in Freund's incomplete adjuvant at 14-day intervals. Antiserum was tested in ELISAs by assessing reactivity with immobilized mouse LYVE-1 fusion protein or CD44Fc fusion protein as a negative control. Sera were then subjected to affinity chromatography on human IgG-agarose to deplete antibodies directed against the Fc portion of the immunogen. Female Balb/c mice were injected (× 2) intraperitoneally with 0.1 ml of a 1:1 emulsion of Freund's incomplete adjuvant in PBS, pH 7.5, at 2-week intervals as described in Ref. 44Mancardi S. Stanta G. Dusetti N. Bestagno M. Jussila L. Zweyer M. Lunazzi G. Dumont D. Alitalo K. Burrone O.R. Exp. Cell Res. 1999; 246: 368-375Crossref PubMed Scopus (67) Google Scholar. Two weeks after the second injection, the mice were sacrificed by cervical dislocation and lymphangiomas which developed on the abdominal surfaces of the diaphragm and in the liver resected for fixation and staining as described below. Tissues were removed from female Balb/c mice or C57B16 homozygous CD44−/− knockout mice, fixed in PBS, 4% paraformaldehyde, and embedded in paraffin wax. Prior to staining, sections were dewaxed and rehydrated by successive incubation in CitroclearTM (2 × 5 min) 100% industrial methylated spirit (2 × 5 min), 50% industrial methylated spirit (5 min), and water (5 min). Antigen retrieval was performed by microwave treatment (95–100 °C, 10 min) in 0.1 m Tris, 2 mm EDTA, pH 9.0. Sections were then blocked by incubation in PBS, 5% fetal calf serum for 5 min and treated with a peroxidase quenching agent (DAKO) for 5 min prior to incubation with rabbit polyclonal anti-mouse LYVE-1 (1:400) for 45 min. After washing with PBS, slides were incubated with anti-rabbit Ig peroxidase conjugate (Envision kit, DAKO) for a further 45 min and developed with diaminobenzidine (DAKO) before counterstaining with hematoxylin. All incubations were performed at room temperature. For double-immunofluorescent staining, tissues (Balb/c mice) were snap frozen in liquid N2, cut into thin sections using a cryotome and fixed in acetone (room temperature, 10 min) prior to incubation with polyclonal anti-mouse LYVE-1 and rat anti-mouse CD34 (10 μg/ml). Sections were then treated with a mixture of Texas RedTM-conjugated goat anti-rabbit Ig (1:50) and Alexa 488-conjugated goat anti-rat Ig (1:200). Slides were fixed in 2% formaldehyde, mounted with fluorescent mounting medium (Vectashield), and viewed under a Zeiss fluorescent microscope. For fluorescent staining of LYVE-1-transfected 293T cells, these were incubated with rabbit anti-mouse LYVE-1 (1/400) in PBS, 5% fetal calf serum, 0.1% azide for 30 min prior to washing in PBS and re-incubation with FITC-conjugated goat anti-rabbit Ig (1/100). For immunoelectron microscopy, sections of formaldehyde-fixed mouse small intestine (see above) were washed (3 times) in 0.1 m phosphate buffer and cut into 2-mm cubes. These were then incubated (room temperature, overnight) with LYVE-1 polyclonal serum (1/100 dilution), washed, and stained with either immunogold or horseradish peroxidase-conjugated anti-rabbit Ig. Samples were post-fixed in osmium tetroxide in 0.1 mphosphate buffer, dehydrated, and embedded in Spurr's epoxy resin. Thin sections were cut and examined in a JEOL 1200EX electron