AllergyVolume 69, Issue 8 p. 1026-1045 Position PaperFree Access Anaphylaxis: guidelines from the European Academy of Allergy and Clinical Immunology A. Muraro, Corresponding Author A. Muraro Department of Mother and Child Health, Padua General University Hospital, Padua, ItalyThese authors contributed equally to this work. Correspondence Antonella Muraro, Department of Mother and Child Health, Referral Centre for Food Allergy Diagnosis and Treatment Veneto Region, University of Padua, Via Giustiniani 3, 35128 Padua, Italy Tel.: +39-049-821-2538 Fax: +39-049-8218091 E-mail: muraro@centroallergiealimentari.euSearch for more papers by this authorG. Roberts, G. Roberts David Hide Asthma and Allergy Research Centre, St Mary's Hospital, Isle of Wight, UK NIHR Respiratory Biomedical Research Unit, University Hospital Southampton NHS Foundation Trust, Southampton, UK Human Development in Health and Clinical and Experimental Sciences Academic Units, University of Southampton Faculty of Medicine, Southampton, UKThese authors contributed equally to this work.Search for more papers by this authorM. Worm, M. Worm Allergy-Center-Charité, Department of Dermatology and Allergy, Charité Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, GermanyThese authors contributed equally to this work.Search for more papers by this authorM. B. Bilò, M. B. Bilò Allergy Unit, Department of Internal Medicine, University Hospital, Ospedali Riuniti, Ancona, ItalySearch for more papers by this authorK. Brockow, K. Brockow Department of Dermatology and Allergy, Biederstein, Technische Universität München, Munich, GermanySearch for more papers by this authorM. Fernández Rivas, M. Fernández Rivas Allergy Department, Hospital Clinico San Carlos, IdISSC, Madrid, SpainSearch for more papers by this authorA. F. Santos, A. F. Santos Division of Asthma, Allergy & Lung Biology, Department of Pediatric Allergy, King's College London, London, UK MRC & Asthma UK Centre in Allergic Mechanisms of Asthma, London, UK Immunoallergology Department, Coimbra University Hospital, Coimbra, PortugalSearch for more papers by this authorZ. Q. Zolkipli, Z. Q. Zolkipli David Hide Asthma and Allergy Research Centre, St Mary's Hospital, Isle of Wight, UK NIHR Respiratory Biomedical Research Unit, University Hospital Southampton NHS Foundation Trust, Southampton, UK Human Development in Health and Clinical and Experimental Sciences Academic Units, University of Southampton Faculty of Medicine, Southampton, UKSearch for more papers by this authorA. Bellou, A. Bellou European Society for Emergency Medicine and Emergency Department, Faculty of Medicine, University Hospital, Rennes, FranceSearch for more papers by this authorK. Beyer, K. Beyer Department of Pediatric, Pneumology and Immunology, Charité, Universitatsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, GermanySearch for more papers by this authorC. Bindslev-Jensen, C. Bindslev-Jensen Department of Dermatology and Allergy Centre, Odense University Hospital, Odense, DenmarkSearch for more papers by this authorV. Cardona, V. Cardona Allergy Section, Department of Internal Medicine, Hospital Universitari Vall d'Hebron, Barcelona, SpainSearch for more papers by this authorA. T. Clark, A. T. Clark Allergy Section, Department of Medicine, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UKSearch for more papers by this authorP. Demoly, P. Demoly Hôpital Arnaud de Villeneuve, University Hospital of Montpellier, Montpellier, FranceSearch for more papers by this authorA. E. J. Dubois, A. E. J. Dubois Department of Pediatric Pulmonology and Pediatric Allergy, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands GRIAC Research Institute, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Groningen, the NetherlandsSearch for more papers by this authorA. DunnGalvin, A. DunnGalvin Department of Paediatrics and Child Health, University College, Cork, IrelandSearch for more papers by this authorP. Eigenmann, P. Eigenmann University Hospitals of Geneva, Geneva, SwitzerlandSearch for more papers by this authorS. Halken, S. Halken Hans Christian Andersen Children's Hospital, Odense University Hospital, Odense, DenmarkSearch for more papers by this authorL. Harada, L. Harada Anaphylaxis Canada, Toronto, CanadaSearch for more papers by this authorG. Lack, G. Lack Division of Asthma, Allergy & Lung Biology, Department of Pediatric Allergy, King's College London, London, UK MRC & Asthma UK Centre in Allergic Mechanisms of Asthma, London, UKSearch for more papers by this authorM. Jutel, M. Jutel Wroclaw Medical University, Wroclaw, PolandSearch for more papers by this authorB. Niggemann, B. Niggemann University Hospital Charité, Berlin, GermanySearch for more papers by this authorF. Ruëff, F. Ruëff Department of Dermatology and Allergology, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität, München, GermanySearch for more papers by this authorF. Timmermans, F. Timmermans Nederlands Anafylaxis Netwerk – European Anaphylaxis Taskforce, Dordrecht, The NetherlandsSearch for more papers by this authorB. J. Vlieg–Boerstra, B. J. Vlieg–Boerstra Department of Pediatric Respiratory Medicine and Allergy, Emma Children's Hospital, Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the NetherlandsSearch for more papers by this authorT. Werfel, T. Werfel Department of Dermatology and Allergy, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, GermanySearch for more papers by this authorS. Dhami, S. Dhami Evidence-Based Health Care Ltd, Edinburgh, UKSearch for more papers by this authorS. Panesar, S. Panesar Evidence-Based Health Care Ltd, Edinburgh, UKSearch for more papers by this authorC. A. Akdis, C. A. Akdis Swiss Institute of Allergy and Asthma Research (SIAF), University of Zurich, Davos, SwitzerlandSearch for more papers by this authorA. Sheikh, A. Sheikh Allergy & Respiratory Research Group, Centre for Population Health Sciences, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UKSearch for more papers by this authoron behalf of the EAACI Food Allergy and Anaphylaxis Guidelines Group, the EAACI Food Allergy and Anaphylaxis Guidelines GroupSearch for more papers by this author A. Muraro, Corresponding Author A. Muraro Department of Mother and Child Health, Padua General University Hospital, Padua, ItalyThese authors contributed equally to this work. Correspondence Antonella Muraro, Department of Mother and Child Health, Referral Centre for Food Allergy Diagnosis and Treatment Veneto Region, University of Padua, Via Giustiniani 3, 35128 Padua, Italy Tel.: +39-049-821-2538 Fax: +39-049-8218091 E-mail: muraro@centroallergiealimentari.euSearch for more papers by this authorG. Roberts, G. Roberts David Hide Asthma and Allergy Research Centre, St Mary's Hospital, Isle of Wight, UK NIHR Respiratory Biomedical Research Unit, University Hospital Southampton NHS Foundation Trust, Southampton, UK Human Development in Health and Clinical and Experimental Sciences Academic Units, University of Southampton Faculty of Medicine, Southampton, UKThese authors contributed equally to this work.Search for more papers by this authorM. Worm, M. Worm Allergy-Center-Charité, Department of Dermatology and Allergy, Charité Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, GermanyThese authors contributed equally to this work.Search for more papers by this authorM. B. Bilò, M. B. Bilò Allergy Unit, Department of Internal Medicine, University Hospital, Ospedali Riuniti, Ancona, ItalySearch for more papers by this authorK. Brockow, K. Brockow Department of Dermatology and Allergy, Biederstein, Technische Universität München, Munich, GermanySearch for more papers by this authorM. Fernández Rivas, M. Fernández Rivas Allergy Department, Hospital Clinico San Carlos, IdISSC, Madrid, SpainSearch for more papers by this authorA. F. Santos, A. F. Santos Division of Asthma, Allergy & Lung Biology, Department of Pediatric Allergy, King's College London, London, UK MRC & Asthma UK Centre in Allergic Mechanisms of Asthma, London, UK Immunoallergology Department, Coimbra University Hospital, Coimbra, PortugalSearch for more papers by this authorZ. Q. Zolkipli, Z. Q. Zolkipli David Hide Asthma and Allergy Research Centre, St Mary's Hospital, Isle of Wight, UK NIHR Respiratory Biomedical Research Unit, University Hospital Southampton NHS Foundation Trust, Southampton, UK Human Development in Health and Clinical and Experimental Sciences Academic Units, University of Southampton Faculty of Medicine, Southampton, UKSearch for more papers by this authorA. Bellou, A. Bellou European Society for Emergency Medicine and Emergency Department, Faculty of Medicine, University Hospital, Rennes, FranceSearch for more papers by this authorK. Beyer, K. Beyer Department of Pediatric, Pneumology and Immunology, Charité, Universitatsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, GermanySearch for more papers by this authorC. Bindslev-Jensen, C. Bindslev-Jensen Department of Dermatology and Allergy Centre, Odense University Hospital, Odense, DenmarkSearch for more papers by this authorV. Cardona, V. Cardona Allergy Section, Department of Internal Medicine, Hospital Universitari Vall d'Hebron, Barcelona, SpainSearch for more papers by this authorA. T. Clark, A. T. Clark Allergy Section, Department of Medicine, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UKSearch for more papers by this authorP. Demoly, P. Demoly Hôpital Arnaud de Villeneuve, University Hospital of Montpellier, Montpellier, FranceSearch for more papers by this authorA. E. J. Dubois, A. E. J. Dubois Department of Pediatric Pulmonology and Pediatric Allergy, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands GRIAC Research Institute, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Groningen, the NetherlandsSearch for more papers by this authorA. DunnGalvin, A. DunnGalvin Department of Paediatrics and Child Health, University College, Cork, IrelandSearch for more papers by this authorP. Eigenmann, P. Eigenmann University Hospitals of Geneva, Geneva, SwitzerlandSearch for more papers by this authorS. Halken, S. Halken Hans Christian Andersen Children's Hospital, Odense University Hospital, Odense, DenmarkSearch for more papers by this authorL. Harada, L. Harada Anaphylaxis Canada, Toronto, CanadaSearch for more papers by this authorG. Lack, G. Lack Division of Asthma, Allergy & Lung Biology, Department of Pediatric Allergy, King's College London, London, UK MRC & Asthma UK Centre in Allergic Mechanisms of Asthma, London, UKSearch for more papers by this authorM. Jutel, M. Jutel Wroclaw Medical University, Wroclaw, PolandSearch for more papers by this authorB. Niggemann, B. Niggemann University Hospital Charité, Berlin, GermanySearch for more papers by this authorF. Ruëff, F. Ruëff Department of Dermatology and Allergology, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität, München, GermanySearch for more papers by this authorF. Timmermans, F. Timmermans Nederlands Anafylaxis Netwerk – European Anaphylaxis Taskforce, Dordrecht, The NetherlandsSearch for more papers by this authorB. J. Vlieg–Boerstra, B. J. Vlieg–Boerstra Department of Pediatric Respiratory Medicine and Allergy, Emma Children's Hospital, Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the NetherlandsSearch for more papers by this authorT. Werfel, T. Werfel Department of Dermatology and Allergy, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, GermanySearch for more papers by this authorS. Dhami, S. Dhami Evidence-Based Health Care Ltd, Edinburgh, UKSearch for more papers by this authorS. Panesar, S. Panesar Evidence-Based Health Care Ltd, Edinburgh, UKSearch for more papers by this authorC. A. Akdis, C. A. Akdis Swiss Institute of Allergy and Asthma Research (SIAF), University of Zurich, Davos, SwitzerlandSearch for more papers by this authorA. Sheikh, A. Sheikh Allergy & Respiratory Research Group, Centre for Population Health Sciences, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UKSearch for more papers by this authoron behalf of the EAACI Food Allergy and Anaphylaxis Guidelines Group, the EAACI Food Allergy and Anaphylaxis Guidelines GroupSearch for more papers by this author First published: 09 June 2014 https://doi.org/10.1111/all.12437Citations: 639 Edited by: Thomas Bieber AboutSectionsPDF ToolsRequest permissionExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShare Give accessShare full text accessShare full-text accessPlease review our Terms and Conditions of Use and check box below to share full-text version of article.I have read and accept the Wiley Online Library Terms and Conditions of UseShareable LinkUse the link below to share a full-text version of this article with your friends and colleagues. Learn more.Copy URL Share a linkShare onFacebookTwitterLinked InRedditWechat Abstract Anaphylaxis is a clinical emergency, and all healthcare professionals should be familiar with its recognition and acute and ongoing management. These guidelines have been prepared by the European Academy of Allergy and Clinical Immunology (EAACI) Taskforce on Anaphylaxis. They aim to provide evidence-based recommendations for the recognition, risk factor assessment, and the management of patients who are at risk of, are experiencing, or have experienced anaphylaxis. While the primary audience is allergists, these guidelines are also relevant to all other healthcare professionals. The development of these guidelines has been underpinned by two systematic reviews of the literature, both on the epidemiology and on clinical management of anaphylaxis. Anaphylaxis is a potentially life-threatening condition whose clinical diagnosis is based on recognition of a constellation of presenting features. First-line treatment for anaphylaxis is intramuscular adrenaline. Useful second-line interventions may include removing the trigger where possible, calling for help, correct positioning of the patient, high-flow oxygen, intravenous fluids, inhaled short-acting bronchodilators, and nebulized adrenaline. Discharge arrangements should involve an assessment of the risk of further reactions, a management plan with an anaphylaxis emergency action plan, and, where appropriate, prescribing an adrenaline auto-injector. If an adrenaline auto-injector is prescribed, education on when and how to use the device should be provided. Specialist follow-up is essential to investigate possible triggers, to perform a comprehensive risk assessment, and to prevent future episodes by developing personalized risk reduction strategies including, where possible, commencing allergen immunotherapy. Training for the patient and all caregivers is essential. There are still many gaps in the evidence base for anaphylaxis. Abbreviations ACE inhibitor angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor AGREE II Appraisal of Guidelines for Research & Evaluation BP blood pressure EAACI European Academy of Allergy and Clinical Immunology ED emergency departments EIA exercise-induced anaphylaxis FDEIA food-dependent, exercise-induced anaphylaxis GRADE Grading of Recommendations, Assessment, Development and Evaluation ICD International Classification of Diseases Codes IgE immunoglobulin E NSAID nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs PEF peak expiratory flow VIT Hymenoptera venom immunotherapy Anaphylaxis is a clinical emergency, and all healthcare professionals should be familiar with its management. These guidelines have been prepared by the European Academy of Allergy and Clinical Immunology's (EAACI) Taskforce on Anaphylaxis and are part of the EAACI Guidelines for Food Allergy and Anaphylaxis. The guidelines aim to provide evidence-based recommendations for the recognition, risk assessment, and management of patients who have experienced, are experiencing, or are at risk of experiencing anaphylaxis. The primary audience is allergists but they are also likely to be of relevance to all other healthcare professionals (e.g., doctors, nurses, and paramedics) in emergency departments (ED), hospital, and primary care. Development of the guidelines has been informed by two systematic reviews of the epidemiology and clinical management of anaphylaxis 1, 2 with weaker forms of evidence being used where there were insufficient data or where high-level evidence is practically or ethically unobtainable. These guidelines build on the previous EAACI Position Paper on Anaphylaxis in Childhood 3 and are complementary to other current anaphylaxis guidelines 4-6. Distinctive features include a European focus and the placing of particular emphasis on the practical issues associated with long-term management. Anaphylaxis is defined as a ‘severe, life-threatening systemic hypersensitivity reaction’ 7 (Box 1). This is characterized by being rapid in onset with potentially life-threatening airway, breathing, or circulatory problems; it is usually, but not always, associated with skin and mucosal changes 5. These guidelines focus mainly on allergic anaphylaxis involving specific immunoglobulin E (IgE) but are also relevant to anaphylaxis involving other mechanisms. Box Key terms Anaphylaxis Severe, potentially life-threatening systemic hypersensitivity reaction 6, 7. This is characterized by being rapid in onset with life-threatening airway, breathing, or circulatory problems and is usually, although not always, associated with skin and mucosal changes Adrenaline (epinephrine) A drug with combined α- and β-agonist actions which result in (i) peripheral vasoconstriction, thereby reversing hypotension and mucosal edema; (ii) increased rate and force of cardiac contractions, thereby reversing hypotension; and (iii) reversal of bronchoconstriction and reduction in the release of inflammatory mediators Adrenaline auto-injector Device designed to be used by a nonmedical person to give a predefined dose of intramuscular adrenaline Cofactors Patient-related or external circumstances that are associated with more severe allergic reactions. They are also known as augmentation factors Management plans Lay summary of the clinical plan that patients should follow. It will have an emergency action plan with likely presenting symptoms and how to respond to each. It should also provide additional information such as avoidance advice if applicable and contact details for further advice from allergy clinic and patient support groups Methods These guidelines were produced using the Appraisal of Guidelines for Research & Evaluation (AGREE II) approach 8, 9, a structured approach to guideline production. This is designed to ensure appropriate representation of the full range of stakeholders, a careful search for and critical appraisal of the relevant literature, a systematic approach to the formulation and presentation of recommendations, and steps to ensure that the risk of bias is minimized at each step of the process. The process began in January 2012, ensuing over 18 months, with in detail discussion of the frame of guidelines for clinical practice, the main aims of the guidelines, the target conditions, agreeing the intended end-user for the recommendations, agreeing the intended end-user group, and ensuring adequate professional and lay representation in the guidelines development process. The process involved: Clarifying the scope and purpose of the guidelines The scope of these EAACI guidelines is multifaceted providing statements that assist clinicians in the management of anaphylaxis in daily practice; harmonizing the approach to this clinical emergency among stakeholders across Europe; and advocating for further research. Ensuring appropriate stakeholder involvement Participants in the Anaphylaxis Taskforce represented a range of 14 European countries, and disciplinary and clinical backgrounds, for example emergency physicians (A. B. Bellou), primary care (A. Sheikh), psychology (A. DunnGalvin), patient groups (F. Timmermans, L. Harada), and dietitians (B. J. Vlieg–Boerstra). Systematic reviews of the evidence The initial full range of questions that were considered important were rationalized through several rounds of iteration to agree to three key questions that were then pursued through two formal systematic reviews of the evidence 1, 2, 10, 11 (see Box 2). Box Key questions addressed in the two supporting systematic reviews 1, 2 What is the epidemiology (i.e., frequency, risk factors, and outcomes) of anaphylaxis and how do these vary by time, place, and person? What is the effectiveness of interventions for the acute management of anaphylaxis? What is the effectiveness of interventions for the long-term management of those at high risk of further episodes of anaphylaxis? Formulating recommendations We graded the strength and consistency of key findings from these systematic reviews to formulate evidence-linked recommendations for care 12 (Box 3). This involved formulating clear recommendations and making clear the strength of evidence underpinning each recommendation. Experts identified the resource implications of implementing the recommendations, barriers, and facilitators to the implementation of each recommendation, advice on approaches to implementing the recommendations and suggested audit criteria that can help with assessing organizational compliance with each recommendation (see Supporting Information Tables S1 and S2). Box Assigning levels of evidence and recommendations 12 Level of evidence Level I Systematic reviews, meta-analysis, randomized controlled trials Level II Two groups, nonrandomized studies (e.g., cohort, case–control) Level III One group nonrandomized (e.g., before and after, pretest, and post-test) Level IV Descriptive studies that include analysis of outcomes (single-subject design, case series) Level V Case reports and expert opinion that include narrative literature, reviews, and consensus statements Grades of recommendation Grade A Consistent level I studies Grade B Consistent level II or III studies or extrapolations from level I studies Grade C Level IV studies or extrapolations from level II or III studies Grade D Level V evidence or troublingly inconsistent or inconclusive studies at any level Peer review and public comment A draft of these guidelines was externally peer-reviewed by invited experts from a range of organizations, countries, and professional backgrounds. Additionally, the draft guidelines were made available on the EAACI Web site for a 3-week period in July 2013 to allow all stakeholders to comment. All feedback was considered by the Anaphylaxis Taskforce and, where appropriate, final revisions were made in light of the feedback received. We will be pleased to continue to receive feedback on these guidelines, which should be addressed to the corresponding author. Identification of evidence gaps The process of developing these guidelines has identified a number of evidence gaps and we plan in the future to formally prioritize these. We plan to draft outline research briefs that funders can use to commission research on these questions. Editorial independence and managing conflict of interests The production of these guidelines was funded and supported by EAACI. The funder did not have any influence on the guidelines production process, on its contents, or on the decision to publish. Taskforce members' conflict of interests were taken into account by the Taskforce Chair as recommendations were formulated. Updating the guidelines We plan to update these guidelines in 2017 unless there are important advances before then. Epidemiology A detailed description of the epidemiology of anaphylaxis can be found in the underpinning systematic review referred to above 1. The exact incidence and prevalence of anaphylaxis in Europe is challenging to establish due to a number of factors. The current definition of anaphylaxis is complex and difficult to use in epidemiological studies 13. Additionally, the World Health Organization's International Classification of Diseases codes (ICD-9 and current ICD-10) focus on anaphylactic shock and do not cover the full range of triggers, meaning that not all allergy cases are likely to be captured in routine data systems. ICD-11 is in development but still seems to miss major triggers 14. Additionally, anaphylaxis has an acute and unexpected onset, may vary in severity, and may resolve spontaneously 15. For all these reasons, underdiagnosis and under-reporting are likely to be common and as a result, epidemiological measures are likely to underestimate the true disease burden. The results of 10 European studies suggest an incidence of 1.5–7.9 per 100 000 person-years 1 with studies from the UK showing an increase in admissions with anaphylaxis over the last two decades 1. Based on three European population-based studies, prevalence is estimated at 0.3% (95% CI, 0.1–0.5) 1. Overall, the case fatality rate for anaphylaxis is low, below 0.001% 1. Key triggers include food, drugs, and stinging insects; in up to 20%, the elicitor is not identified. Their relative importance varies with age and geography studied. For ED presentations, drugs and foods are the most common elicitors of anaphylaxis, with age-related differences 1, 16. Foods are the most frequent cause of anaphylaxis in children, with pollen allergy and asthma being important risk factors 1. Drug- and Hymenoptera venom-triggered anaphylaxis are more common in adults than in children. Compared to males, adult females have a higher frequency of anaphylaxis 1 in general and specifically to plant foods and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAID) 1. Drugs are the most frequent cause of anaphylaxis in hospitalized patients 1. For anaphylaxis during anesthesia, neuromuscular blocking agents are the most frequent triggers in adult patients in most countries, with a higher incidence in females 1. Clinical presentation and diagnosis The clinical manifestations of anaphylaxis depend on the organ systems involved. Widely accepted criteria to help clinicians identify likely anaphylaxis 17, 18 (Box 4) emphasize the rapid onset of its multiple symptoms and signs. These criteria significantly improve the identification of anaphylaxis 19 and demonstrate excellent sensitivity (96.7%) and good specificity (82.4%) for the diagnosis of anaphylaxis in a retrospective ED study 20. Symptoms and signs of anaphylaxis usually occur within 2 h of exposure to the allergen 21, usually within 30 min for food allergy and even faster with parenteral medication or insect stings. In a large case series of fatal anaphylaxis, the median time from symptoms to arrest has been reported as 30, 15, and 5 min for food, insect venom, and parenteral medication, respectively 22. Among the symptoms of anaphylaxis, cutaneous manifestations occur in most cases 23, 24. In a recent study describing a cohort of 2012 pediatric and adult patients with anaphylaxis, the skin was the most frequently affected organ (84%), followed by cardiovascular symptoms (72%) and respiratory symptoms (68%) 25. Anaphylaxis, however, can develop in the absence of cutaneous manifestations. Respiratory or cardiovascular symptoms or signs are the potentially life-threatening features of anaphylaxis 26. Respiratory symptoms occur more frequently in children, and cardiovascular symptoms predominate in adults 25-31. Nausea and vomiting may also be associated with anaphylaxis 22 (Fig. 1). Figure 1Open in figure viewerPowerPoint Symptoms associated with anaphylaxis. GI, gastrointestinal. Biphasic anaphylactic reactions have been reported to develop in up to 20% of reactions 24, 32-34 although the evidence for this is of low quality. They usually occur within 4–12 of the first symptoms or signs and may be more severe. A delay in giving adrenaline (epinephrine), insufficient adrenaline, or failure to administer a glucocorticosteroid may increase the risk of biphasic reactions 33-37. Anaphylaxis is a clinical diagnosis that builds on the criteria shown in Box 4. Retrospectively, the diagnosis may be supported if serum tryptase is elevated within a few hours after the reaction when compared with the patient's baseline levels; levels are often normal especially in food-triggered reactions in children 38. Evidence of IgE sensitization on skin prick 39 or in vitro testing may also aid the diagnosis; provocation testing, ideally with any potential cofactors 40, may be required if diagnostic doubt remains 26. Children may outgrow their food allergy, even if severe 41. Box Clinical criteria for diagnosing anaphylaxis Anaphylaxis is highly likely when any one of the following three criteria is fulfilled: 1. Acute onset of an illness (minutes to several hours) with involvement of the skin, mucosal tissue, or both (e.g., generalized hives, pruritus or flushing, swollen lips?tongue?uvula AND AT LEAST ONE OF THE FOLLOWING a. Respiratory compromise (e.g., dyspnea, wheeze?bronchospasm, stridor, reduced PEF, hypoxemia) b. Reduced BP or associated symptoms of end-organ dysfunction (e.g., hypotonia [collapse], syncope, incontinence) 2. Two or more of the following that occur rapidly after exposure to a likely allergen for that patient (minutes to several hours): a. Involvement of the skin?mucosal tissue (e.g., generalized hives, itch-flush, swollen lips?tongue?uvula b. Respiratory compromise (e.g., dyspnea, wheeze?bronchospasm, stridor, reduced PEF, hypoxemia) c. Reduced BP or associated symptoms (e.g., hypotonia [collapse], syncope, incontinence) d. Persistent gastrointestinal symptoms (e.g., crampy abdominal pain, vomiting) 3. Reduced BP after exposure to known allergen for that patient (minutes to several hours): a. Infants and children: low systolic BP (age specific) or >30% decrease in systolic BPaa Low