Adipose tissue expression and circulating concentrations of monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1) correlate positively with adiposity. To ascertain the roles of MCP-1 overexpression in adipose, we generated transgenic mice by utilizing the adipocyte P2 (aP2) promoter (aP2-MCP-1 mice). These mice had higher plasma MCP-1 concentrations and increased macrophage accumulation in adipose tissues, as confirmed by immunochemical, flow cytometric, and gene expression analyses. Tumor necrosis factor-α and interleukin-6 mRNA levels in white adipose tissue and plasma non-esterified fatty acid levels were increased in transgenic mice. aP2-MCP-1 mice showed insulin resistance, suggesting that inflammatory changes in adipose tissues may be involved in the development of insulin resistance. Insulin resistance in aP2-MCP-1 mice was confirmed by hyperinsulinemic euglycemic clamp studies showing that transgenic mice had lower rates of glucose disappearance and higher endogenous glucose production than wild-type mice. Consistent with this, insulin-induced phosphorylations of Akt were significantly decreased in both skeletal muscles and livers of aP2-MCP-1 mice. MCP-1 pretreatment of isolated skeletal muscle blunted insulin-stimulated glucose uptake, which was partially restored by treatment with the MEK inhibitor U0126, suggesting that circulating MCP-1 may contribute to insulin resistance in aP2-MCP-1 mice. We concluded that both paracrine and endocrine effects of MCP-1 may contribute to the development of insulin resistance in aP2-MCP-1 mice. Adipose tissue expression and circulating concentrations of monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1) correlate positively with adiposity. To ascertain the roles of MCP-1 overexpression in adipose, we generated transgenic mice by utilizing the adipocyte P2 (aP2) promoter (aP2-MCP-1 mice). These mice had higher plasma MCP-1 concentrations and increased macrophage accumulation in adipose tissues, as confirmed by immunochemical, flow cytometric, and gene expression analyses. Tumor necrosis factor-α and interleukin-6 mRNA levels in white adipose tissue and plasma non-esterified fatty acid levels were increased in transgenic mice. aP2-MCP-1 mice showed insulin resistance, suggesting that inflammatory changes in adipose tissues may be involved in the development of insulin resistance. Insulin resistance in aP2-MCP-1 mice was confirmed by hyperinsulinemic euglycemic clamp studies showing that transgenic mice had lower rates of glucose disappearance and higher endogenous glucose production than wild-type mice. Consistent with this, insulin-induced phosphorylations of Akt were significantly decreased in both skeletal muscles and livers of aP2-MCP-1 mice. MCP-1 pretreatment of isolated skeletal muscle blunted insulin-stimulated glucose uptake, which was partially restored by treatment with the MEK inhibitor U0126, suggesting that circulating MCP-1 may contribute to insulin resistance in aP2-MCP-1 mice. We concluded that both paracrine and endocrine effects of MCP-1 may contribute to the development of insulin resistance in aP2-MCP-1 mice. Obesity correlates closely with insulin resistance (1Flier J.S. Cell. 2004; 116: 337-350Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (962) Google Scholar, 2Wellen K.E. Hotamisligil G.S. J. Clin. Investig. 2005; 115: 1111-1119Crossref PubMed Scopus (3225) Google Scholar). We have demonstrated that the size of adipocytes is inversely related to insulin sensitivity (3Okuno A. Tamemoto H. Tobe K. Ueki K. Mori Y. Iwamoto K. Umesono K. Akanuma Y. Fujiwara T. Horikoshi H. Yazaki Y. Kadowaki T. J. Clin. Investig. 1998; 101: 1354-1361Crossref PubMed Scopus (927) Google Scholar, 4Kubota N. Terauchi Y. Miki H. Tamemoto H. Yamauchi T. Komeda K. Satoh S. Nakano R. Ishii C. Sugiyama T. Eto K. Tsubamoto Y. Okuno A. Murakami K. Sekihara H. Hasegawa G. Naito M. Toyoshima Y. Tanaka S. Shiota K. Kitamura T. Fujita T. Ezaki O. Aizawa S. Nagai R. Tobe K. Kimura S. Kadowaki T. Mol. Cell. 1999; 4: 597-609Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (1225) Google Scholar, 5Kadowaki T. J. Clin. Investig. 2000; 106: 459-465Crossref PubMed Scopus (220) Google Scholar); namely, larger adipocytes are associated with insulin resistance, smaller adipocytes, with insulin sensitivity. Energy excess results in adipocyte hypertrophy, which in turn exerts deleterious effects on insulin sensitivity. Larger adipocytes are less insulin-sensitive as shown by impaired insulin stimulated glucose uptake. Moreover, diet-induced hypertrophy of adipocytes leads to changes in the profile of adipokines toward a deterioration of insulin sensitivity, particularly with decreased adiponectin levels (6Yamauchi T. Kamon J. Waki H. Terauchi Y. Kubota N. Hara K. Mori Y. Ide T. Murakami K. Tsuboyama-Kasaoka N. Ezaki O. Akanuma Y. Gavrilova O. Vinson C. Reitman M.L. Kagechika H. Shudo K. Yoda M. Nakano Y. Tobe K. Nagai R. Kimura S. Tomita M. Froguel P. Kadowaki T. Nat. Med. 2001; 7: 941-946Crossref PubMed Scopus (4099) Google Scholar, 7Berg A.H. Combs T.P. Du X. Brownlee M. Scherer P.E. Nat. Med. 2001; 7: 947-953Crossref PubMed Scopus (2218) Google Scholar). Recent studies have shown that obesity is associated not only with larger adipocytes but also with increasing numbers of infiltrating macrophages in adipose tissues (8Soukas A. Cohen P. Socci N.D. Friedman J.M. Genes Dev. 2000; 14: 963-980PubMed Google Scholar, 9Weisberg S.P. McCann D. Desai M. Rosenbaum M. Leibel R.L. Ferrante Jr., A.W. J. Clin. Investig. 2003; 112: 1796-1808Crossref PubMed Scopus (7562) Google Scholar, 10Xu H. Barnes G.T. Yang Q. Tan G. Yang D. Chou C.J. Sole J. Nichols A. Ross J.S. Tartaglia L.A. Chen H. J. Clin. Investig. 2003; 112: 1821-1830Crossref PubMed Scopus (5240) Google Scholar). These adipose tissue macrophages are currently considered to be a major cause of obesity-associated chronic low grade inflammation (2Wellen K.E. Hotamisligil G.S. J. Clin. Investig. 2005; 115: 1111-1119Crossref PubMed Scopus (3225) Google Scholar, 11Wellen K.E. Hotamisligil G.S. J. Clin. Investig. 2003; 112: 1785-1788Crossref PubMed Scopus (1452) Google Scholar) via secretion of a wide variety of inflammatory molecules (12Kershaw E.E. Flier J.S. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 2004; 89: 2548-2556Crossref PubMed Scopus (3754) Google Scholar), including tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) 2The abbreviations used are: TNF-α, tumor necrosis factor-α; IL-6, interleukin-6; MCP-1, monocyte chemoattractant protein-1; WAT, white adipose tissue; CCR2, C-C motif chemokine receptor 2; TG, transgenic; aP2, adipocyte P2; WT, wild type; ITT, insulin tolerance test; NEFA, non-esterified fatty acid; IR, insulin receptor; IRS, IR substrate; ERK, extracellular signal-regulated kinase; MEK, mitogen-activated extracellular signal protein kinase; BAT, brown adipose tissue; MMP12, matrix metallopeptidase 12; PPARγ, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ; SVC, stromal-vascular cell; 2-DG, 2-deoxyglucose; Rd, rate of glucose disappearance; EGP, endogenous glucose production; ANOVA, analysis of variance; eWAT, epididymal WAT; HF, high fat; NC, normal chow. (13Hotamisligil G.S. Shargill N.S. Spiegelman B.M. Science. 1993; 259: 87-91Crossref PubMed Scopus (6193) Google Scholar), interleukin-6 (IL-6) (14Fernandez-Real J.M. Ricart W. Endocr. Rev. 2003; 24: 278-301Crossref PubMed Scopus (727) Google Scholar), monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1) (15Takahashi K. Mizuarai S. Araki H. Mashiko S. Ishihara A. Kanatani A. Itadani H. Kotani H. J. Biol. Chem. 2003; 278: 46654-46660Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (268) Google Scholar, 16Christiansen T. Richelsen B. Bruun J.M. Int. J. Obes. Relat. Metab. Disord. 2005; 29: 146-150Crossref PubMed Scopus (333) Google Scholar), and plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 (17Shimomura I. Funahashi T. Takahashi M. Maeda K. Kotani K. Nakamura T. Yamashita S. Miura M. Fukuda Y. Takemura K. Tokunaga K. Matsuzawa Y. Nat. Med. 1996; 2: 800-803Crossref PubMed Scopus (823) Google Scholar). These inflammatory molecules may have local effects on white adipose tissue (WAT) physiology as well as potential systemic effects on other organs, which culminate in insulin resistance (12Kershaw E.E. Flier J.S. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 2004; 89: 2548-2556Crossref PubMed Scopus (3754) Google Scholar). The molecular signals that trigger the macrophage accumulation in obese WAT are, however, not yet known. How macrophage accumulation in adipose tissues causes systemic insulin resistance is currently unknown. Among inflammatory molecules up-regulated in adipose tissues of obese animals and humans, MCP-1 has been viewed as one of the likely candidate adipokines initiating macrophage infiltration of the adipose tissue and inducing systemic insulin resistance. MCP-1 is a member of the CC chemokine family and promotes migration of inflammatory cells by chemotaxis and integrin activation (18Ashida N. Arai H. Yamasaki M. Kita T. J. Biol. Chem. 2001; 276: 16555-16560Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (174) Google Scholar), and it has been reported to recruit monocytes from the blood into atherosclerotic lesions, thereby promoting foam cell formation (19Boring L. Gosling J. Cleary M. Charo I.F. Nature. 1998; 394: 894-897Crossref PubMed Scopus (1686) Google Scholar, 20Gu L. Okada Y. Clinton S.K. Gerard C. Sukhova G.K. Libby P. Rollins B.J. Mol. Cell. 1998; 2: 275-281Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (1380) Google Scholar, 21Linton M.F. Fazio S. Int. J. Obes. Relat. Metab. Disord. 2003; 27: 35-40Crossref PubMed Scopus (233) Google Scholar). MCP-1 expression in adipose tissue and plasma MCP-1 levels have been found to correlate positively with the degree of obesity (9Weisberg S.P. McCann D. Desai M. Rosenbaum M. Leibel R.L. Ferrante Jr., A.W. J. Clin. Investig. 2003; 112: 1796-1808Crossref PubMed Scopus (7562) Google Scholar, 10Xu H. Barnes G.T. Yang Q. Tan G. Yang D. Chou C.J. Sole J. Nichols A. Ross J.S. Tartaglia L.A. Chen H. J. Clin. Investig. 2003; 112: 1821-1830Crossref PubMed Scopus (5240) Google Scholar, 16Christiansen T. Richelsen B. Bruun J.M. Int. J. Obes. Relat. Metab. Disord. 2005; 29: 146-150Crossref PubMed Scopus (333) Google Scholar, 22Sartipy P. Loskutoff D.J. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 2003; 100: 7265-7270Crossref PubMed Scopus (919) Google Scholar). In addition, increased expression of this chemokine in adipose tissue precedes the expression of other macrophage markers during the development of obesity (10Xu H. Barnes G.T. Yang Q. Tan G. Yang D. Chou C.J. Sole J. Nichols A. Ross J.S. Tartaglia L.A. Chen H. J. Clin. Investig. 2003; 112: 1821-1830Crossref PubMed Scopus (5240) Google Scholar). A recent report on mice lacking C-C motif chemokine receptor-2 (CCR2), a receptor for MCP-1, and other several chemokines suggested the MCP-1/CCR2 pathway to influence the development of obesity and insulin resistance via adipose macrophage accumulation and inflammation (23Weisberg S.P. Hunter D. Huber R. Lemieux J. Slaymaker S. Vaddi K. Charo I. Leibel R.L. Ferrante A.W. J. Clin. Investig. 2006; 116: 115-124Crossref PubMed Scopus (1271) Google Scholar). Thus, we hypothesized that MCP-1 may serve as a signal that triggers inflammation by attracting macrophages into adipose tissues as well as an adipokine that causes insulin resistance by directly affecting insulin signaling in other organs. In this study, we assessed the effect of adipose overexpression of MCP-1 on the development of insulin resistance by generating transgenic (TG) mice under the adipocyte P2 (aP2) promoter. The TG mice showed increased macrophage accumulation in adipose tissues with higher plasma MCP-1 concentrations than littermate wild-type (WT) mice. The TG mice were insulin-resistant as shown by insulin tolerance test (ITT), hyperinsulinemic euglycemic studies, and insulin signal studies. Because the TG mice displayed increased gene expression of TNF-α and IL-6 as well as higher plasma concentrations of non-esterified fatty acids (NEFAs), adipocyte dysfunction caused by macrophage accumulation in adipose tissue may contribute to the development of systemic insulin resistance. In addition, we demonstrated that MCP-1 directly attenuated insulin signaling in myotube cells and insulin-stimulated glucose uptake in isolated skeletal muscle, suggesting that higher circulating MCP-1 may have a direct negative impact on insulin-stimulated glucose uptake in aP2-MCP-1 mice. Thus, we conclude that both macrophage accumulation leading to adipocyte dysfunction (local effects on adipose tissues) and direct effects of circulating MCP-1 on insulin target organs (endocrine effects) contribute to the development of insulin resistance in aP2-MCP-1 mice. Reagents—Recombinant mouse CCL2/JE/MCP-1 protein was purchased from R&D Systems Inc. (Minneapolis, MN). U0126 was purchased from Calbiochem. 2-Deoxy-d-[1-14C]glucose and l-[1-3H]glucose were purchased from American Radiolabeled Chemicals Inc. (St. Louis, MO). Mouse monoclonal anti-phosphotyrosine antibody 4G10 (αPY), rabbit polyclonal antibodies to insulin receptor substrate (IRS)-1, IRS-2, and the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase p85 regulatory subunit were purchased from Upstate Biotechnology Inc. Rabbit polyclonal antibody to insulin receptor β (IRβ) was purchased from Santa Cruz Biotechnology. Rabbit polyclonal antibodies against p44/42 MAPK, phosphor-p44/42 MAPK, Akt, and phospho-Akt (Ser-473) were purchased from Cell Signaling Technology. Cell Culture, Differentiation, and in Vitro Assay—C2C12 mouse skeletal myoblast cell lines were maintained in Dulbecco's modified Eagle's medium supplemented with 10% fetal bovine serum, 100 units/ml penicillin, and 100 μg/ml streptomycin in humidified 5% CO2, 95% air at 37 °C and cultured to confluence. To induce differentiation, cells were switched to media containing Dulbecco's modified Eagle's medium, 2.5% horse serum, 100 units/ml penicillin, and 100 μg/ml streptomycin for the indicated time periods. For the Western blotting analyses, cells were serum-deprived for 10 h in media and treated with 10 nm MCP-1 for 5 min to detect the extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) activation. C2C12 cells were treated with 1-10 nm MCP-1 for 30 min before 10 nm insulin stimulation to test activation of insulin signaling. In some experiments cells were pretreated with U0126, an inhibitor of mitogen-activated extracellular signal protein kinase (MEK), for 30 min before MCP-1 addition. Generation of TG Mice Expressing MCP-1 in Adipose Tissues—A murine MCP-1 coding sequence cDNA for insertion was prepared by cloning reverse transcriptase-PCR products from mouse macrophage mRNA into a 2.1-TOPO cloning vector (Invitrogen). For overexpression in adipose tissues, transgene expression was targeted to adipose tissue using the mouse aP2 promoter (24Graves R.A. Tontonoz P. Platt K.A. Ross S.R. Spiegelman B.M. J. Cell. Biochem. 1992; 49: 219-224Crossref PubMed Scopus (61) Google Scholar) kindly provided by Dr. Bruce Spiegelman (Dana Farber Institute, Boston, MA). The transgene consisted of 5.4 kilobases of the aP2 gene promoter linked to rabbit β-globin, the 447 bp MCP-1 cDNA, and a polyadenylation sequence (Fig. 2A). The construct was inserted into a pUC19 vector (Nippon Gene Co., Ltd.) and cloned. The purified AscI-AscI fragment was microinjected into the pronuclei of fertilized DBF2 eggs. The recipient eggs were [C57BL/6 × DBA2] F2 hybrids. TG founder or F2 mice were identified by Southern blot analysis of tail DNAs using the cDNA probe to the BamHI/BamHI site in MCP-1 and PCR. The primers used for genotyping PCR were as follows: 5′ primer, 5′-CATCCTGCCTTTCTCTTTATGGTTAC-3′, and 3′ primer, 5′-CTAGTTCACTGTCACACTGGTC-3′. From the 13 lines of TG mice obtained, we selected three lines showing graded expression of MCP-1 and designated them low (L), middle (M), and high (H). The founder and TG descendants were bred onto a C57BL/6 background for two generations. The F2 TG mice and their littermates were used in experiments. TG mice served as heterozygotes. Animal Care—ob/ob mice with a C57BL/6 background were purchased from The Jackson Laboratory (Bar Harbor, ME). C57BL/6 mice were purchased from CLEA Japan (Tokyo, Japan). Mice were housed under a 12-h light-dark cycle and given ad libitum access to normal chow MF consisting of 25% (w/w) protein, 53% carbohydrates, 6% fat, and 8% water (Oriental Yeast Co., Ltd., Osaka, Japan) or a high fat diet 32 consisting of 25.5% (w/w) protein, 2.9% fiber, 4.0% ash, 29.4% carbohydrates, 32% fat, and 6.2% water (CLEA Japan Inc., Tokyo, Japan). All experiments in this study were performed on male mice. The animal care and procedures for the experiments were approved by the Animal Care Committee of the University of Tokyo. RNA Preparation and Northern Blot Analysis—Mice were sacrificed after a 6-h fast and the epididymal fat pad (for epididymal WAT), subcutaneous fat (for subcutaneous WAT), brown adipose tissue (BAT), liver, spleen, kidney, heart, and muscle were excised. Total RNA was prepared from tissues using TRIzol Reagent (Invitrogen) according to the manufacturer's instructions. Northern blot analysis was performed with 15 μg of total RNA according to the standard protocol. Total RNA was loaded onto a 1.3% agarose gel then transferred to a nylon membrane (Hybond N+; Amersham Biosciences). MCP-1 coding sequence cDNA was used as the probe template. The corresponding bands were quantified by exposure of BAS 2000 to the filters and measurement with BAStation software (Fuji Film, Tokyo, Japan). Quantitative Reverse Transcriptase-PCR—Total RNA was extracted from various tissues or C2C12 cells with TRIzol reagent according to the manufacturer's instructions. After treatment with RQ1 RNase-free DNase (Promega, Madison, WI) to remove genomic DNA, cDNA was synthesized with MultiScribe reverse transcriptase (Applied Biosystems, Foster City, CA), and TaqMan quantitative PCR (50 °C for 2 min, 95 °C for 10 min followed by 40 cycles of 95 °C for 15 s, 60 °C for 1 min) was then performed with the ABI Prism 7900 PCR instrument (Applied Biosystems) to amplify samples for MCP-1, F4/80, CD68, matrix metallopeptidase 12 (MMP12), glucose-6-phosphatase, TNF-α, IL-6, resistin, adiponectin, leptin, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ (PPARγ), CCR2, and cyclophilin cDNA. The primers used for cyclophilin were as described previously (25Suzuki R. Tobe K. Terauchi Y. Komeda K. Kubota N. Eto K. Yamauchi T. Azuma K. Kaneto H. Taguchi T. Koga T. German M.S. Watada H. Kawamori R. Wright C.V. Kajimoto Y. Kimura S. Nagai R. Kadowaki T. J. Biol. Chem. 2003; 278: 43691-43698Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (30) Google Scholar), and those for the other reactions were purchased from Applied Biosystems. The relative abundance of transcripts was normalized to constitutive expression of cyclophilin mRNA. Isolation of Adipocytes and Stromal-vascular Cells (26Takahashi M. Kamei Y. Ezaki O. Am. J. Physiol. Endocrinol. Metab. 2005; 288: 117-124Crossref PubMed Scopus (138) Google Scholar)—Mice were anesthetized, and epididymal white fat pads were removed. The fat pads were rinsed in saline and cut into small pieces, then digested with collagenase (Sigma-Aldrich) with Krebs-Henseleit-HEPES buffer, pH 7.4, supplemented with 20 mg/ml of bovine serum albumin and 2 mmol/liter glucose at 37 °C in a shaking water bath for 45 min. Then digested tissues were filtered through mesh and fractionated by brief centrifugation (1000 rpm). Floating cells were adipocytes, and the pellet was nonadipocytes (stromal-vascular cells (SVCs)). Both cell types were rinsed three times with Krebs-Henseleit-HEPES buffer and used in RNA extraction or flow cytometry analysis. Flow Cytometry Analysis (9Weisberg S.P. McCann D. Desai M. Rosenbaum M. Leibel R.L. Ferrante Jr., A.W. J. Clin. Investig. 2003; 112: 1796-1808Crossref PubMed Scopus (7562) Google Scholar, 23Weisberg S.P. Hunter D. Huber R. Lemieux J. Slaymaker S. Vaddi K. Charo I. Leibel R.L. Ferrante A.W. J. Clin. Investig. 2006; 116: 115-124Crossref PubMed Scopus (1271) Google Scholar)—In the SVCs red blood cells were lysed and removed by a 15-min incubation in Pharm Lyse (BD Biosciences) at 4 °C. The SVCs were rinsed twice and resuspended in Pharmingen stain buffer (BD Biosciences). The cell number was calculated by hemocytometing, and the cells were incubated with FcBlock (BD Biosciences) for 10 min at 4 °C before the incubation with either anti-mouse CD11b antibodies conjugated with Alexa Fluor488 (Caltag Laboratories) or anti-mouse F4/80 antibodies conjugated with phycoerythrin (Caltag Laboratories) or each of the matching isotopes as controls for 30 min at 4 °C. After incubation with the antibodies, the cells were rinsed twice and resuspended in Pharmingen stain buffer. After labeling with TO-PRO-3 (Invitrogen), the cells were analyzed by FACSCalibur (BD Biosciences). Data acquisition and analysis were performed using CellQuest Pro software (BD Biosciences). Dead cells were gated out by a combination of forward scatter side scatter (FSC/SSC) and TO-PRO-3 dot plots. The numbers of macrophages in epididymal white adipose tissues were calculated by multiplying the number of SVCs by the percentage of CD11d and F4/80 double positive cells. Immunoprecipitation and Western Blot Analysis—Tissues and cells were homogenized and lysed with ice-cold buffer A (25 mm Tris-HCl, pH 7.4, 10 mm sodium orthovanadate, 10 mm sodium pyrophosphate, 100 mm sodium fluoride, 10 mm EDTA, 10 mm EGTA, and 1 mm phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride). After centrifugation, immunoprecipitation of liver and muscle proteins was performed as described previously (27Yamauchi T. Tobe K. Tamemoto H. Ueki K. Kaburagi Y. Yamamoto-Honda R. Takahashi Y. Yoshizawa F. Aizawa S. Akanuma Y. Sonenberg N. Yazaki Y. Kadowaki T. Mol. Cell. Biol. 1996; 16: 3074-3084Crossref PubMed Scopus (250) Google Scholar) with some modifications. Samples were separated on polyacrylamide gels and transferred to Hybond-P PVDF transfer membrane (Amersham Biosciences). After incubating the membrane with antibodies, bands were detected by ECL detection reagents (Amersham Biosciences). Histological and Immunohistochemical Analysis of WAT—An epididymal fat pad was removed from each animal, fixed in 10% formaldehyde/phosphate-buffered saline, and maintained at 4 °C for 2 days. Fixed specimens were dehydrated and embedded in paraffin. The fat pad was then cut into 5-μm sections at 50-μm intervals and then mounted on silanized slides. After deparaffinization, the sections were stained with rat monoclonal F4/80 antibody (Serotec Ltd.) at a 1:1000 concentration followed by counter-staining with hematoxylin. The adipocyte area was manually traced and analyzed with Win ROOF software (Mitani Co. Ltd., Chiba, Japan). The area was measured in four high-power fields (275,000 μm2/field) from different sections, and the histogram was drawn by analyzing 6 mice per group according to methods described previously (4Kubota N. Terauchi Y. Miki H. Tamemoto H. Yamauchi T. Komeda K. Satoh S. Nakano R. Ishii C. Sugiyama T. Eto K. Tsubamoto Y. Okuno A. Murakami K. Sekihara H. Hasegawa G. Naito M. Toyoshima Y. Tanaka S. Shiota K. Kitamura T. Fujita T. Ezaki O. Aizawa S. Nagai R. Tobe K. Kimura S. Kadowaki T. Mol. Cell. 1999; 4: 597-609Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (1225) Google Scholar) with modifications. The adipocyte area was measured in 400 or more cells per mouse on normal chow or in 180 or more cells per mouse on the high fat diet. The total number of nuclei and the number of F4/80 positive nuclei were counted in four different high-power fields from each of four different sections. The nuclei of more than 2000 cells per mouse on normal chow or more than 1000 cells per mouse on the high fat diet were counted. The ratio of F4/80 positive nuclei was calculated as the number of nuclei of F4/80-expressing cells divided by the total number of nuclei in sections of a sample. Measurement of 2-Deoxyglucose (2-DG) Uptake—This assay was performed as described previously (28Murakami K. Tsunoda M. Ide T. Ohashi M. Mochizuki T. Metabolism. 1999; 48: 1450-1454Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (15) Google Scholar) with some modifications. The soleus muscles of 9-week-old C57BL/6 mice were removed from the hindlimbs, ligated around each tendon using silk surgical thread, and attached across a plastic holder. The muscles were incubated for 10 min at 37 °C in Krebs-Ringer phosphate buffer, pH 7.4, containing 5 mm HEPES, 3% bovine serum albumin, and 2 mm sodium pyruvate (buffer A). For MCP-1 pretreatment, the muscles were incubated in buffer A containing 0, 0.1, 1, or 10 nm MCP-1 for 30 min at 37 °C before insulin treatment. The muscles were incubated with or without 10 nm insulin in buffer A containing 0, 0.1, 1, or 10 nm MCP-1 at 30 °C for 10 min. To determine 2-DG uptake, the muscles were transferred to buffer A containing 1 mm 2-DG (0.5 μCi/ml 2-deoxy-d-[1-14C]glucose) and 1 mm l-glucose (0.5 μCi/ml l-[1-3H]glucose) and incubated at 30 °C for 10 min. For U0126 rescue experiments, 20 μm U0126 were added to all of the buffers. The buffers were continuously gassed with 95% O2, 5%CO2 in a shaking incubator. To terminate the reaction, the muscles were washed 3 times with chilled buffer A and then dissolved in 5 n NaOH. The samples were neutralized with 5 n HCl and dissolved in ACSII (Amersham Biosciences). 14C and 3H specific activities were counted by a liquid scintillation counter (Packard Instrument Co.). The specific uptake of 2-DG was calculated by subtracting the nonspecific uptake of l-glucose from total uptake 2-DG uptake. Plasma MCP-1, Adiponectin, Leptin, and NEFA Measures—Mice were fasted for 6 h before plasma was obtained. Plasma MCP-1, adiponectin, and leptin levels were determined with a mouse JE/MCP-1 enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) kit (R&D Systems), mouse adiponectin ELISA kit (Otsuka Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd, Tokyo, Japan), and mouse leptin ELISA kit (R&D Systems), respectively. Plasma NEFAs (Wako Pure Chemical Industries Ltd., Osaka, Japan) were assayed by enzymatic methods. Measurement of Tissue Triglyceride Contents—Liver and muscle tissues were homogenized, and their triglyceride contents were determined as described previously (6Yamauchi T. Kamon J. Waki H. Terauchi Y. Kubota N. Hara K. Mori Y. Ide T. Murakami K. Tsuboyama-Kasaoka N. Ezaki O. Akanuma Y. Gavrilova O. Vinson C. Reitman M.L. Kagechika H. Shudo K. Yoda M. Nakano Y. Tobe K. Nagai R. Kimura S. Tomita M. Froguel P. Kadowaki T. Nat. Med. 2001; 7: 941-946Crossref PubMed Scopus (4099) Google Scholar). ITT—Insulin tolerance was tested in mice fasted for 4 h. The animals were intraperitoneally injected with 0.75 milliunits/g (body weight) human insulin (Humulin R; Lilly). Blood samples were drawn from the tail vein at the times indicated, and glucose was measured with an automatic blood glucose meter (Glutest Pro, Sanwa Chemical, Nagoya, Japan). Glucose Tolerance Test—Before the study the mice were fasted for 16 h starting at 19:00, and at the end of the fast they were orally loaded with glucose at 1.0 mg/g (body weight). Blood samples were collected at different times, and glucose was immediately measured with an automatic blood glucose meter. Whole blood was collected and centrifuged in heparinized tubes, and the plasma was stored at -20 °C. Insulin levels were determined with an insulin radioimmunoassay kit (BIOTRAK, Amersham Biosciences) using rat insulin as the standard. Tissue Sampling for Insulin Signaling Pathway Study—Mice were anesthetized after 24 h of starvation, and 5 units of human insulin (Humulin R, Lilly) were injected into the inferior vena cava. After 5 min, the liver and hindlimb muscles were removed, and the samples were then used for protein extraction as described above. Hyperinsulinemic-Euglycemic Clamp Study—Clamp studies were carried out as described previously (29Suzuki R. Tobe K. Aoyama M. Inoue A. Sakamoto K. Yamauchi T. Kamon J. Kubota N. Terauchi Y. Yoshimatsu H. Matsuhisa M. Nagasaka S. Ogata H. Tokuyama K. Nagai R. Kadowaki T. J. Biol. Chem. 2004; 279: 25039-25049Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (59) Google Scholar). In brief, 4-5 days before the study, an infusion catheter was inserted into the right jugular vein under general anesthesia with sodium pentobarbital. Studies were performed on mice under conscious and unstressed conditions after a 6-h fast. A primed-continuous infusion of insulin (Humulin R; Lilly) was given (3.0 milliunits/kg/min for normal chow (NC) fed mice and 10.0 milliunits/kg/min for high fat (HF) diet-fed mice), and the blood glucose concentration, monitored every 5 min, was maintained at ∼120 mg/dl by administration of glucose (5 g of glucose/10 ml enriched to ∼20% with [6,6-2H2]glucose (Sigma)) for 120 min. Blood was sampled via tail-tip bleeds at 90, 105, and 120 min for determination of the rate of glucose disappearance (Rd). Rd was calculated according to non-steady-state equations (29Suzuki R. Tobe K. Aoyama M. Inoue A. Sakamoto K. Yamauchi T. Kamon J. Kubota N. Terauchi Y. Yoshimatsu H. Matsuhisa M. Nagasaka S. Ogata H. Tokuyama K. Nagai R. Kadowaki T. J. Biol. Chem. 2004; 279: 25039-25049Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (59) Google Scholar), and endogenous glucose production (EGP) was calculated as the difference between Rd and exogenous glucose infusion rates (29Suzuki R. Tobe K. Aoyama M. Inoue A. Sakamoto K. Yamauchi T. Kamon J. Kubota N. Terauchi Y. Yoshimatsu H. Matsuhisa M. Nagasaka S. Ogata H. Tokuyama K. Nagai R. Kadowaki T. J. Biol. Chem. 2004; 279: 25039-25049Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (59) Google Scholar). Statistical Analysis—Results were expressed as the means ± S.E. Differences between groups were examined for statistical significance using Student's t test, analysis of variance (ANOVA) with Fisher's protected least significant difference test, or ANOVA with the