Abnormalities of mineral metabolism occur early in chronic kidney disease. Quantification of the prevalence of these abnormalities has not been described using current assays nor in large unselected populations. This outpatient cohort cross-sectional study was conducted in 153 centers, (71% primary care practices). Blood for parathyroid hormone (PTH), vitamin D metabolites, creatinine, calcium (Ca), and phosphorus (P) were drawn between June and October 2004. Low 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D (1,25 OH2 D3) was defined as <22 pg/ml. The 1814 patients had a mean age of 71.1 years old; 48% had diabetes mellitus (DM). Low 1,25 OH2 D3 was evident at all estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) levels: 13% in those with eGFR >80 ml/min, >60% in those with eGFR <30 ml/min. High PTH (>65pm/dl) occurred in 12% with eGFR >80 ml/min. Serum Ca and P were normal until eGFR was <40 ml/min. Significant differences in the mean and median values of 1,25 OH2 D3, PTH, but not 25(OH)D3 levels, were seen across deciles of eGFR (P<0.001). Multivariate analysis revealed that DM, increased urinary albumin/creatinine ratio and lower eGFR predicted lower values of 1,25 OH2 D3. A high prevalence of mineral metabolite abnormalities occurs in a large unreferred US cohort. Low 1,25 OH2 D3 and elevated PTH are common at higher eGFR than previously described. As bone, cardiovascular disease, and mineral metabolite are correlated; further studies are necessary to determine the importance of these findings relative to outcomes. Abnormalities of mineral metabolism occur early in chronic kidney disease. Quantification of the prevalence of these abnormalities has not been described using current assays nor in large unselected populations. This outpatient cohort cross-sectional study was conducted in 153 centers, (71% primary care practices). Blood for parathyroid hormone (PTH), vitamin D metabolites, creatinine, calcium (Ca), and phosphorus (P) were drawn between June and October 2004. Low 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D (1,25 OH2 D3) was defined as <22 pg/ml. The 1814 patients had a mean age of 71.1 years old; 48% had diabetes mellitus (DM). Low 1,25 OH2 D3 was evident at all estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) levels: 13% in those with eGFR >80 ml/min, >60% in those with eGFR <30 ml/min. High PTH (>65pm/dl) occurred in 12% with eGFR >80 ml/min. Serum Ca and P were normal until eGFR was <40 ml/min. Significant differences in the mean and median values of 1,25 OH2 D3, PTH, but not 25(OH)D3 levels, were seen across deciles of eGFR (P<0.001). Multivariate analysis revealed that DM, increased urinary albumin/creatinine ratio and lower eGFR predicted lower values of 1,25 OH2 D3. A high prevalence of mineral metabolite abnormalities occurs in a large unreferred US cohort. Low 1,25 OH2 D3 and elevated PTH are common at higher eGFR than previously described. As bone, cardiovascular disease, and mineral metabolite are correlated; further studies are necessary to determine the importance of these findings relative to outcomes. It is now accepted that the presence of chronic kidney disease (CKD) is associated with poor outcomes.1.Keith D.S. Nichols G.A. Gullion C.M. et al.Longitudinal follow-up and outcomes among a population with chronic kidney disease in a large managed care organization.Arch Intern Med. 2004; 164: 659-663Crossref PubMed Scopus (1283) Google Scholar, 2.Lowrie E.G. Lew N.L. Death risk in hemodialysis patients: the predictive value of commonly measured variables and an evaluation of death rate differences between facilities.Am J Kidney Dis. 1990; 15: 458-482Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (1652) Google Scholar, 3.Vanholder R. Massy Z. Argiles A. et al.Chronic kidney disease as cause of cardiovascular morbidity and mortality.Nephrol Dial Transplant. 2005; 20: 1048-1056Crossref PubMed Scopus (492) Google Scholar In particular, cardiovascular events and mortality increase as the estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) declines below 60 ml/min.4.Go A.S. Chertow G.M. Fan D. et al.Chronic kidney disease and the risks of death, cardiovascular events, and hospitalization.N Engl J Med. 2004; 351: 1296-1305Crossref PubMed Scopus (8252) Google Scholar In dialysis patients, cardiovascular disease is 10- to 20-fold higher than the general population, representing at least half of the 15–25% per year mortality rate.5.Sarnak M.J. Coronado B.E. Greene T. et al.Cardiovascular disease risk factors in chronic renal insufficiency.Clin Nephrol. 2002; 57: 327-3356Crossref PubMed Scopus (177) Google Scholar The mechanisms associating CKD with mortality have not been determined, in part, owing to the lack of comprehensive clinical and biochemical analyses. Recently, increased attention has focused on endocrine abnormalities in patients with CKD as a way to explain some of these associations.6.Block G.A. Hulbert-Shearon T.E. Levin N.W. Port F.K. Association of serum phosphorus and calcium x phosphate product with mortality risk in chronic hemodialysis patients: a national study.Am J Kidney Dis. 1998; 31: 607-617Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (2013) Google Scholar,7.Teng M. Wolf M. Ofsthun M.N. et al.Activated injectable vitamin D and hemodialysis survival: a historical cohort study.J Am Soc Nephrol. 2005; 16: 1115-1125Crossref PubMed Scopus (713) Google Scholar For example, 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D (1,25 OH2 D3) deficiency is known to occur during the progression of CKD because the final hydroxylation step of 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25(OH)D3) to 1,25 OH2 D3 (calcitriol) is mediated by kidney 1á-hydroxylase.8.Llach F. Yudd M. Pathogenic, clinical, and therapeutic aspects of secondary hyperparathyroidism in chronic renal failure.Am J Kidney Dis. 1998; 32: S3-S12PubMed Google Scholar Calcitriol deficiency plays a major role in the development of secondary hyperparathyroidism (HPTH), as 1,25 OH2 D3 deficiency promotes parathyroid gland growth (hyperplasia) and increased parathyroid hormone (PTH) synthesis through loss of the ability to upregulate vitamin D receptor expression within parathyroid cells.9.Llach F. Velasquez F. Secondary hyperparathyroidism in chronic renal failure: pathogenic and clinical aspects.Am J Kidney Dis. 2001; 38: S20-S33Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (96) Google Scholar The end result is elevated serum PTH and abnormal calcium (Ca) and phosphorus (P) balance. Elevated PTH and hyperphosphatemia were recently identified again as risk factors for mortality in dialysis patients.10.Block G.A. Klassen P.S. Lazarus J.M. et al.Mineral metabolism, mortality, and morbidity in maintenance hemodialysis.J Am Soc Nephrol. 2004; 15: 2208-2218Crossref PubMed Scopus (2080) Google Scholar However, additional data indicate that vitamin D treatment is an important factor that may mitigate the effects of HPTH and hyperphosphatemia on cardiovascular mortality.7.Teng M. Wolf M. Ofsthun M.N. et al.Activated injectable vitamin D and hemodialysis survival: a historical cohort study.J Am Soc Nephrol. 2005; 16: 1115-1125Crossref PubMed Scopus (713) Google Scholar These findings not only have practical applications to current dialysis treatment, but they may also have important implications in the much larger population of CKD patients who are not receiving dialysis. Currently, there are also concerns regarding the potential side effects of vitamin D therapy, such as hypercalcemia and vascular calcification. In order to better understand the role of vitamin D in this setting, it is important to first establish the relationship of eGFR to disordered vitamin D and mineral metabolism in the untreated state. The purpose of this cross-sectional analysis of baseline data available from an observational, prospective study was to determine the relationships of circulating vitamin D, PTH, Ca, and P in CKD patients who were not receiving prescribed vitamin D, as an initial attempt to better identify the role of vitamin D deficiency as it relates to eGFR and the development of HPTH. Figure 1 describes the population screening and inclusion process from which the final cohort for analysis was derived. From June 2004 to October 2004, 5255 patients were screened, and 1903 patients met the entry criteria. Screening failures resulted primarily from the fact that the eGFR values calculated using the most recent serum creatinine in the chart were ≥60 ml/min/1.73 m2. Of the 1903 patients who were enrolled in the Study for the Evaluation of Early Kidney disease (SEEK) study, 89 patients were not included in the analysis because of an inability to calculate an estimated eGFR owing to missing laboratory values for serum creatinine, and thus providing 1814 CKD patients (866 or 48% men and 948 women) with data available for analysis. The general characteristics of the patient population are shown in Table 1. The demographics are displayed by total population, and by level of eGFR, as calculated from the serum creatinine values taken at the baseline visit. Note that the mean eGFR was 47 ml/min, 85% were hypertensive, the majority of patients were >65 years of age (71%), approximately 35% describe a history of some form of coronary artery disease, and 47% were diabetic. The representation of African Americans is similar to that of the US population (12%). Patients were distributed across all geographic regions in the United States with 71% being enrolled from primary care practices, 19% from nephrologists, 7% from endocrinologists, and 3% from cardiologists. Less than 25% of the population was taking Ca supplementation, and less than 10% were on hormone replacement therapy or bisphosphonates.Table 1Description of patient characteristics as a total group, and by eGFR levels (>60, 59–30, and <30 ml/min)CharacteristicsPatients totalGFR>60 ml/minGFR 59–30 ml/minGFR<30 ml/minP-valueN18144081109297Serum creatinine (mg/dl)1.6 (0.86)1.01.53.0<0.0001GFR (ml/min)47.0 (17.7)71.244.822.0<0.0001Age (mean years)70.165.671.269.3<0.0001>65 years1283 (70.7%)245 (60.1%)827 (74.6%)211 (71.0%)<0.0001EthnicityaInformation on race and diabetes was reported by the subject.0.1028 AA219 (12.1%)42 (10.3%)131 (11.8%)46 (15.5%) Other1595 (87.9%)366 (89.7%)978 (88.2%)251 (13.8%) Male866 (47.7%)201 (49.3%)524 (47.3%)141 (47.5%)0.7806Geographic region0.1900 Midwest456 (25.1%)92 (22.6%)278 (25.1%)86 (29.0%) Northeast374 (20.6%)78 (19.1%)228 (20.6%)68 (229%) Northwest210 (11.6%)58 (14.2%)121 (10.9%)31 (10.4%) Southeast514 (28.3%)127 (31.1%)313 (28.2%)74 (24.9%) Southwest260 (14.3%)53 (13.0%)169 (15.2%)38 (12.8%) DMaInformation on race and diabetes was reported by the subject.858 (47.3%)137 (33.7%)552 (50.1%)169 (58.3%)<0.0001CVD Angina326 (18.4%)73 (18.1%)201 (18.6%)52 (18.4%)0.9730 CAD615 (34.9%)109 (27.3%)394 (36.5%)112 (39.6%)0.0008 CABG265 (15.0%)45 (11.2%)170 (15.7%)50 (17.7%)0.0358 MI278 (15.7%)51 (12.7%)171 (15.8%)56 (19.9%)0.0387 CHF333 (18.9%)50 (12.4%)208 (19.3%)75 (26.7%)<0.0001 PVD299 (17.1%)43 (10.8%)203 (18.9%)53 (18.9%)0.0007 CVA161 (9.1%)28 (6.9%)107 (9.9%)26 (9.3%)0.2070 HTN1541 (86.7%)296 (73.5%)973 (89.3%)272 (95.8%)<0.0001 Current smoking345 (19.6%)87 (21.6%)212 (19.6%)46 (16.5%)0.2490 iPTH (pg/ml)81.0 (89.88)46.4 (28.11)71.7 (59.08)185.5 (159.88)<0.0001 Serum albumin (g/dl)4.2 (0.35)4.34.34.1<0.0001 Hemoglobin (g/dl)13.1 (1.73)13.813.012.1<0.0001 UACR (mg/g)475.4 (10896.37)30.0193.52151.30.0160 UACR>30 mg/g633 (35.6%)62 (15.4%)363 (33.4%)208 (71.7%)<0.0001Anti-hypertension medications ACE inhibitor678 (38.4%)128 (32.1%)444 (41.0%)106 (37.2%)0.0070 ARB603 (33.9%)105 (26.1%)377 (34.6%)121 (42.3%)<0.0001 CCB625 (35.3%)94 (23.3%)388 (35.9%)143 (50.2%)<0.0001 Beta blocker785 (44.4%)121 (30.0%)510 (47.2%)154 (54.2%)<0.0001 Diuretics1142 (63.9%)189 (46.8%)735 (67.2%)218 (75.7%)<0.0001Other medications Calcium supplement442 (25.1%)88 (21.9%)282 (26.2%)72 (25.3%)0.2368 Multivitamin726 (40.8%)152 (37.6%)458 (42.2%)116 (40.6%)0.2814 Statins980 (55.2%)190 (47.2%)623 (57.4%)167 (58.6%)0.0009 Hormone RT155 (8.7%)42 (10.4%)89 (8.2%)24 (8.4%)0.3958 Bisphosphonate145 (8.2%)37 (9.2%)89 (8.2%)19 (6.6%)0.4848 NSAID362 (20.4%)101 (25.1%)243 (22.4%)18 (6.3%)<0.0001 Steroid107 (5.9%)31 (7.7%)57 (5.3%)19 (6.6%)0.1917 ASA984 (55.3%)203 (50.5%)634 (58.1%)147 (51.2%)0.0109AA, African American; ACE, angiotensin converting enzyme; ARB, angiotensin II receptor blockade; ASA, aspirin; CAD, coronary artery disease; CABG, coronary artery bypass graft; CCB, calcium channel blocker; CHF, congestive heart failure; CVA, cerebral vascular accident; CVD, cardiovascular disease; DM, diabetic mellitus; GFR, glomerular filtration rate; HTN, hypertension; MI, myocardial infarction; NSAID, non-steroid anti-inflammation drugs; iPTH, intact parathyroid hormone; PVD, peripheral vascular disease; RT, replacement therapy; UACR, urinary albumin to creatinine ratio.Data are presented: mean (s.d.), or number (%). Percents may not add to 100% because of rounding.Information on DM, CVD, smoking, UACR, and medications was not available for less than 5% of the subjects.P-value alludes to the difference between the three groups.a Information on race and diabetes was reported by the subject. Open table in a new tab AA, African American; ACE, angiotensin converting enzyme; ARB, angiotensin II receptor blockade; ASA, aspirin; CAD, coronary artery disease; CABG, coronary artery bypass graft; CCB, calcium channel blocker; CHF, congestive heart failure; CVA, cerebral vascular accident; CVD, cardiovascular disease; DM, diabetic mellitus; GFR, glomerular filtration rate; HTN, hypertension; MI, myocardial infarction; NSAID, non-steroid anti-inflammation drugs; iPTH, intact parathyroid hormone; PVD, peripheral vascular disease; RT, replacement therapy; UACR, urinary albumin to creatinine ratio. Data are presented: mean (s.d.), or number (%). Percents may not add to 100% because of rounding. Information on DM, CVD, smoking, UACR, and medications was not available for less than 5% of the subjects. P-value alludes to the difference between the three groups. Figure 2 describes the distribution of patients by eGFR intervals. The majority of patients had stage 3 CKD, with an eGFR between 30 and 60 ml/min/1.73 m2. Twenty-three percent (405 patients) had an eGFR >60 ml/min/1.73 m2, as evidenced in the figure, the percentages in each decile above 60 ml/min/1.73 m2 were 3% >80, 7%=79–70 and 13%=69–60 ml/min/1.73 m2), which was outside of the study entry criteria of <60 ml/min/1.73 m2. This was the result of a discrepancy between the eGFR calculated from the screening chart serum creatinine and the eGFR calculated from the serum creatinine measured at baseline (study visit 1). Gender and ethnicity were not significantly different between subjects with an eGFR of 30 and 60 ml/min/1.73 m2 when calculated from the screening chart serum creatinine but who had an eGFR of > or <60 ml/min/1.73 m2 when calculated from the serum creatinine measured at baseline. Subjects with an eGFR of 30–60 ml/min/1.73 m2 when calculated from the screening chart serum creatinine and whose eGFR remained <60 ml/min/1.73 m2 when calculated from the serum creatinine measured at baseline were significantly older, had significantly lower 1,25 OH2 D3 and 25(OH)D3 levels and significantly higher intact PTH (iPTH) levels compared to those with an eGFR of 30–60 ml/min/1.73 m2 when calculated from the screening chart serum creatinine and whose eGFR was >60 ml/min/1.73 m2 eGFR when calculated from the serum creatinine measured at baseline. Figure 3 describes the median values of Ca, P, and iPTH. Note the relative stability of serum Ca and P over the spectrum of eGFR values, until eGFR decreased to <20 ml/min/1.73 m2. Median Ca and P values were within normal ranges, and increases in iPTH (>65 pg/dl) began to occur at eGFR levels of approximately 45 ml/min/1.73 m2. Figure 4 describes the prevalence of abnormal values of Ca, P, and iPTH levels. There is a increase in the prevalence of (HPTH, iPTH >65 pg/ml) across declining eGFR levels. Interestingly, HPTH was present in approximately 12% of those with eGFR values >80 ml/min/1.73 m2, 17% of those with an eGFR of 70–79 ml/min/1.73 m2, 21% of those with an eGFR between 60 and 69 ml/min/1.73 m2, and 56% of those with an eGFR <60 ml/min/1.73 m2.Figure 4The prevalence of HPTH, hypocalcemia, and hyperphosphatemia by eGFR levels at 10 ml/min intervals.View Large Image Figure ViewerDownload (PPT) For the purposes of analyses, deficiency of vitamin D metabolites were defined as <15 ng/ml for 25(OH)D3 based on current Kidney Disease Outcomes Quality Initiative guidelines. Given the lack of published data regarding the definition of 1,25 OH2 D3 deficiency, we determined, a priori, a methodology to help define this value. We used the interim baseline 1,25 OH2 D3 data available for this unselected, community based, outpatient population, and selected the lowest tertile of the underlying 1,25 OH2 D3 distribution as the cutoff level for deficiency, rather than just the lower limit of the reference range as reported by the laboratory. The level for 1,25 OH2 D3 deficiency based on this method was 22.3 pg/ml, which, was just below the lower end of the normal lab reference range. A receiver operating characteristic curve analysis was undertaken to evaluate the sensitivity and specificity of this 1,25 OH2 D3 deficiency level. The receiver operating characteristic curve described the relationship between deficient/normal 1,25 OH2 D3 (lower/higher than 24.4 pg/ml) and iPTH (lower/higher than 65 pg/ml). The sensitivity and specificity were 38.6% and 72.3%, respectively. The cutoff level for 1,25 OH2 D3 deficiency was 22.3 pg/ml based on lowest tertile of 1,25 OH2 D3 distribution and 24.4 pg/ml based on receiver operating characteristic curve. To be more conservative, we used the level <22 pg/ml as the cutoff to define 1,25 OH2 D3 deficiency. Our data confirmed the previous observations that 25(OH)D3 was associated with iPTH levels, though the R2 value is relatively unimpressive (Adjusted R2=0.0823; P<0.01). Figure 5 describes the median values of 25(OH)D3, 1,25 OH2 D3 and iPTH by level of eGFR. The decrease in 1,25 OH2 D3 levels was over the spectrum of eGFR values, whereas the slope of decline in 25(OH)D3 was less steep over the same time period. By multiple regression analyses, a model including eGFR as the dependent variable and other mineral metabolites as the independent variable, there was observed relationship between eGFR and 1,25 OH2 D3 (R2=0.3827, P<0.0001) but not between eGFR and 25(OH)D3 (P=0.8932). Although a significant interaction was found between levels of 1,25 OH2 D3 and 25(OH)D3 when all study participants were included in the analysis (P=0.0182), the interaction disappeared when the analysis was limited to only those with an eGFR of <60 ml/min (P=0.3433). Note that HPTH also begins to occur at eGFR levels of approximately 45 ml/min/1.73 m2, similar to the point where the median value of 1,25 OH2 D3 begins to approach values deemed ‘deficient’ (22 pg/ml) when using the values in the lowest tertile for this population. This relationship was further explored by examining the prevalence of abnormalities within the population by eGFR deciles (Figures 6 and 7). The prevalence of deficiency of 25(OH)D3 remained relatively stable until eGFR fell below 30 ml/min/1.73 m2 and appears to be dissociated from the HPTH prevalence. We then explored the prevalence of various combinations of abnormalities, and found that 49% of those with low 1,25 OH2 D3 levels had high iPTH, irrespective of 25(OH)D3 levels; whereas, only 35% of those with low 25(OH)D3 levels had high iPTH levels (P<0.05, χ2 test).Figure 6The prevalence of deficiency of 1,25 OH2 D3, 25(OH)D3, and HPTH by GFR intervals.View Large Image Figure ViewerDownload (PPT)Figure 7Association between low 1,25 OH2 D3, low 25(OH)D3, and high iPTH levels.View Large Image Figure ViewerDownload (PPT) Univariate analysis between patients with normal versus low values of 1,25 OH2 D3 revealed significant differences within the total population for all variables except age (Table 2). When examined by level of eGFR (>60, 30–60, and <30 ml/min/1.73 m2), different patterns emerged. For example, in those with an eGFR >60 ml/min/1.73 m2, there were only statistically significant differences between 25(OH)D3 levels in relation to 1,25 OH2 D3 levels, and these were still in the non-deficiency range. In those with an eGFR between 30 and 60 ml/min/1.73 m2, phosphorous was statistically significantly different, though of questionable clinical significance and within the normal range (3.7 vs 3.6 mg/dl, P=0.001). Also within this group, values of 25(OH)D3 were different, (as were the absolute values of eGFR, hemoglobin, and urinary albumin-to-creatinine ratios (UACR)), based on whether the 1,25 OH2 D3 levels were deficient or normal. Finally, in those with an eGFR <30 ml/min/1.73 m2, iPTH values were not substantially different, but most were well above the normal range of 65 pg/dl. Values of 25(OH)D3, eGFR, albumin, and UACR were significantly different. The interesting finding that higher UACR was associated with lower levels of 1,25 OH2 D3 at eGFR values of <60 ml/min/1.73 m2 is novel. Multivariate analysis revealed that only the presence of diabetes mellitus (DM) (odds ratio=1.727, confidence interval=1.385–2.152, P<0.0001), increased UACR (odds ratio=1.429, confidence interval=1.129–1.808, P=0.0029) and decreased eGFR (confidence interval=0.427, confidence interval=0.350–0.519, P<0.0001) predicted lower values of 1,25 OH2 D3. Variables in the model included age, gender, race, Ca, phosphorous, eGFR, Dm, and UACR (Table 3).Table 2Univariate analyses describing differences in key variables between those with low 1,25 OH2 D vs normal 1,25 OH2 D3 within the total group, and by levels of GFR>60, 59–30, and <30 ml/min/1.73 m2TotalTotalP-valueGFR>60GFR>60P-valueGFR 59–30GFR 59–30P-valueGFR<30GFR<30P-valueLow 1,25 DNormal 1,25 DLow 1,25 DNormal 1,25 DLow 1,25 DNormal 1,25 DLow 1,25 DNormal 1,25 DN5361126593213296911481141,25 OH2 D3 (pg/ml)14.434.9<0.00117.341.5<0.00114.933.7<0.00112.330.0<0.001Age (years)71.071.00.93467.068.00.83071.072.00.39873.072.50.784GFR (ml/min/1.73 m2)37.451.0<0.00166.467.70.40541.047.2<0.00122.124.20.00725(OH)D3 (ng/ml)23.029.0<0.00124.531.0<0.00124.029.0<0.00121.025.00.003Intact PTH (pg/ml)65.053.0<0.00140.041.00.66661.055.50.12395.0116.00.105Calcium (mg/dl)9.29.10.0349.29.10.2049.29.10.1659.19.00.145Phosphorus (mg/dl)3.83.6<0.0013.43.50.3123.73.60.0014.24.00.049Albumin (g/dl)4.24.3<0.0014.24.30.0754.24.3<0.0014.14.3<0.001Bicarbonate (Meq/l)22.023.0<0.00123.023.00.48722.023.00.04120.021.00.111Hgb (g/dl)12.513.2<0.00113.713.80.69112.613.2<0.00112.012.30.059UACR (mg/g)23.010.0<0.0017.07.00.59415.010.00.002215.057.0<0.001GFR, glomerular filtration rate; Hgb, hemoglobin; PTH, parathyroid hormone; UACR, urinary albumin to creatinine ratio.All values represent median values. Open table in a new tab Table 3Multivariable analysis: independent association with low 1,25 OH2 D3 in all subjectsOdds ratio95% CIP-valuesGFR0.4430.360–0.545<0.0001DM1.7571.404–2.197<0.0001UACR1.4731.158–1.8740.0016Age1.0010.990–1.0120.881Sex1.0690.854–1.3370.562Race (AA or not)0.7360.514–1.0530.093Serum calcium1.0060.560–1.8060.985Serum phosphorus1.2450.842–1.8410.273AA, African American; CI, confidence interval; DM, diabetic mellitus; GFR, glomerular filtration rate; UACR, urinary albumin to creatinine ratio.Variables in the model include age, gender, AA, GFR by categories, diabetes, UACR by categories >30 mg/g, <30 mg/g, calcium by categories <8.4, >8.4 mg/dl, and phosphorus >4.6, <4.6 mg/dl; only GFR, DM, and UACR were independently associated with low 1,25 OH2 D3 levels. Open table in a new tab GFR, glomerular filtration rate; Hgb, hemoglobin; PTH, parathyroid hormone; UACR, urinary albumin to creatinine ratio. All values represent median values. AA, African American; CI, confidence interval; DM, diabetic mellitus; GFR, glomerular filtration rate; UACR, urinary albumin to creatinine ratio. Variables in the model include age, gender, AA, GFR by categories, diabetes, UACR by categories >30 mg/g, <30 mg/g, calcium by categories <8.4, >8.4 mg/dl, and phosphorus >4.6, <4.6 mg/dl; only GFR, DM, and UACR were independently associated with low 1,25 OH2 D3 levels. We describe here, in the largest observational study of an unselected cohort of patients with varying levels of kidney dysfunction, the prevalence of abnormalities of vitamin D metabolites, iPTH, and Ca and P. This study demonstrates a number of key findings, some of which corroborate previous work, and some of which are novel. Within this cohort, we attempted to better define 1,25 OH2 D3 deficiency, or more specifically, low values of 1,25 OH2 D3. Thus we describe a high prevalence of low values of 1,25 OH2 D3 within this population, even at higher levels of eGFR than usually expected or has not been reported previously. Note that the low values are congruent with the low range of values as reported by the laboratory reference range. We also describe the prevalence of elevated iPTH levels, which increased significantly at eGFR values below 50 ml/min/1.73 m2. Importantly, neither of these changes was associated with demonstrable changes in serum Ca, P, or major differences in values of 25(OH)D3. The dissociation of HPTH from any significant changes in serum Ca and P in patients with a lower eGFR, whereas physiologically expected, underscores the need to assess this hormone level irrespective of these mineral metabolites. The late occurrence of hyperphosphatemia was not present in enough of the population to explain the high prevalence of HPTH in stage 4 disease. The univariate predictors of low 1,25 OH2 D3 levels differed by eGFR values, but most interestingly, in the multivariate analysis, we demonstrated that DM, elevated UACR, and eGFR were independently associated with low levels of 1,25 OH2 D3. There also seemed to be a strong association between low 1,25 OH2 D3 levels and the prevalence of HPTH. Although the Kidney Disease Outcomes Quality Initiative guidelines recommend iPTH testing in CKD patients at eGFR levels below 60 ml/min/1.73 m2, in general, such testing only occurs in a small number of patients, and these findings provide further support for those testing guidelines. Although PTH testing is clearly more practical at present, these findings also have implications for 1,25 OH2 D3 testing of individuals, given the biological relevance of that deficiency to HPTH, and the demonstration here that low levels of 1,25 OH2 D3 occur earlier in the course of eGFR decline than does elevations in iPTH levels. However, in the absence of longitudinal or outcome data that would provide clinical relevance, the use of 1,25 OH2 D3 levels as a surrogate for the development of HPTH is premature, as this cross-sectional analysis of baseline data cannot and does not address this question. Prospective descriptive and then, interventional clinical trials where 1,25 OH2 D3 is repleted, with subsequent measurement of clinically meaningful outcomes related to this treatment are required to address this question. Low serum 1,25 OH2 D3 occurs for a variety of reasons, and has been recently described as being more prevalent than previously thought in western populations. Although decreased renal 1-α hydroxylase in CKD is largely responsible for reduced circulating levels of 1,25 OH2 D3, other potential factors may exist, which also suppress this hydroxylating enzyme.11.Andress D.L. Vitamin D treatment in chronic kidney disease.Semin Dial. 2005; 18: 315-321Crossref PubMed Scopus (56) Google Scholar In addition, low levels of the 25(OH)D3 substrate may contribute to decreased levels of 1,25 OH2 D3 production, particularly in CKD patients with nephrotic range proteinuria.12.Sato K.A. Gray R.W. Lemann Jr, J. Urinary excretion of 25-hydroxyvitamin D in health and the nephrotic syndrome.J Lab Clin Med. 1982; 99: 325-330PubMed Google Scholar One recent survey noted that 86% CKD patients (n=43) had inadequate 25(OH)D3 levels (<30 ng/ml), which has been previously defined by others.13.Gonzalez E.A. Sachdeva A. Oliver D.A. Martin K.J. Vitamin D insufficiency and deficiency in chronic kidney disease. A single center observational study.Am J Nephrol. 2004; 24: 503-510Crossref PubMed Scopus (333) Google Scholar,14.Holick M.F. Vitamin D for health and in chronic kidney disease.Semin Dial. 2005; 18: 266-275Crossref PubMed Scopus (137) Google Scholar In our study, we also found that although many subjects had inadequate 25(OH)D3 levels, only 12% were frankly deficient in 25(OH)D3 deficient (<15 ng/ml). In addition, our large sample allowed us to determine that the relationship between 25(OH)D3 and 1,25 OH2 D3 was not significant (R2=0.3666, P=0.3433 at eGFR<60 ml/min), which is consistent with Ishimura's observation;15.Ishimura E. Nishizawa Y. Inaba M. et al.Serum levels of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D, 24,25-dihydroxyvitamin D, and 25-hydroxyvitamin D in nondialyzed patients with chronic renal failure.Kidney Int. 1999; 55: 1019-1027Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (208) Google Scholar and while statistically significantly different among the eGFR groups, the values were of questionable clinical significance (4–5 ng/ml). In this analysis, the relationship between serum 25(OH)D3 with elevated iPTH and decreased GFR levels was less relevant than that of 1,25 OH2 D3. This finding may have therapeutic ramifications as recent Kidney Disease Outcomes Quality Initiative guidelines currently suggest the use of ergocalciferol (