Cell dysfunction and death induced by lipid accumulation in nonadipose tissues, or lipotoxicity, may contribute to the pathogenesis of obesity and type 2 diabetes. However, the mechanisms leading to lipotoxic cell death are poorly understood. We recently reported that, in Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells and in H9c2 cardiomyoblasts, lipid overload induced by incubation with 500 μM palmitate leads to intracellular accumulation of reactive oxygen species, which subsequently induce endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress and cell death. Here, we show that palmitate also impairs ER function through a more direct mechanism. Palmitate was rapidly incorporated into saturated phospholipid and triglyceride species in microsomal membranes of CHO cells. The resulting membrane remodeling was associated with dramatic dilatation of the ER and redistribution of protein-folding chaperones to the cytosol within 5 h, indicating compromised ER membrane integrity. Increasing β-oxidation, through the activation of AMP-activated protein kinase, decreased palmitate incorporation into microsomes, decreased the escape of chaperones to the cytosol, and decreased subsequent caspase activation and cell death. Thus, palmitate rapidly increases the saturated lipid content of the ER, leading to compromised ER morphology and integrity, suggesting that impairment of the structure and function of this organelle is involved in the cellular response to fatty acid overload. Cell dysfunction and death induced by lipid accumulation in nonadipose tissues, or lipotoxicity, may contribute to the pathogenesis of obesity and type 2 diabetes. However, the mechanisms leading to lipotoxic cell death are poorly understood. We recently reported that, in Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells and in H9c2 cardiomyoblasts, lipid overload induced by incubation with 500 μM palmitate leads to intracellular accumulation of reactive oxygen species, which subsequently induce endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress and cell death. Here, we show that palmitate also impairs ER function through a more direct mechanism. Palmitate was rapidly incorporated into saturated phospholipid and triglyceride species in microsomal membranes of CHO cells. The resulting membrane remodeling was associated with dramatic dilatation of the ER and redistribution of protein-folding chaperones to the cytosol within 5 h, indicating compromised ER membrane integrity. Increasing β-oxidation, through the activation of AMP-activated protein kinase, decreased palmitate incorporation into microsomes, decreased the escape of chaperones to the cytosol, and decreased subsequent caspase activation and cell death. Thus, palmitate rapidly increases the saturated lipid content of the ER, leading to compromised ER morphology and integrity, suggesting that impairment of the structure and function of this organelle is involved in the cellular response to fatty acid overload. Increased serum triacylglycerol (TAG) and NEFA levels, associated with obesity and type 2 diabetes, contribute to lipid accumulation in many nonadipose tissues. Through the process of lipotoxicity, this inappropriate accumulation of excess lipid can lead to cellular dysfunction and cell death (1Unger R.H. Lipid overload and overflow: metabolic trauma and the metabolic syndrome.Trends Endocrinol. Metab. 2003; 14: 398-403Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (325) Google Scholar). For example, evidence from rodent models strongly implicates cardiac accumulation of lipid in the genesis of heart failure in diabetes. 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A critical role for eukaryotic elongation factor 1A-1 in lipotoxic cell death.Mol. Biol. Cell. 2006; 17: 770-778Crossref PubMed Scopus (117) Google Scholar). Furthermore, our studies revealed that palmitate-induced ER stress was mediated, in part, through the generation of ROS (14Borradaile N.M. Buhman K.K. Listenberger L.L. Magee C.J. Morimoto E.T. Ory D.S. Schaffer J.E. A critical role for eukaryotic elongation factor 1A-1 in lipotoxic cell death.Mol. Biol. Cell. 2006; 17: 770-778Crossref PubMed Scopus (117) Google Scholar). Several observations indicate that palmitate may also act more directly at the level of the ER to initiate a lipotoxic response. In vitro evidence suggests that palmitoyl-CoA facilitates ER fission (21Turner M.D. Fatty acyl CoA-mediated inhibition of endoplasmic reticulum assembly.Biochim. Biophys. 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Effect of fatty acids on physical properties of microsomes from isolated perfused rat liver.Chem. Phys. Lipids. 1980; 26: 207-224Crossref PubMed Scopus (11) Google Scholar, 26Spector A.A. Yorek M.A. Membrane lipid composition and cellular function.J. Lipid Res. 1985; 26: 1015-1035Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Google Scholar). Here, we demonstrate that, in CHO cells and H9c2 cardiomyoblasts, the rapid induction of ER stress in the presence of palmitate is associated with the rapid incorporation of this fatty acid into lipid components of the rough ER and subsequent compromise of rough ER structure and integrity. Although previous studies indicate that palmitate-induced intracellular responses converge on the mitochondria, eventually resulting in the release of cytochrome c into the cytosol and apoptotic cell death, our studies suggest that the ER may play an important proximal role in FA-induced cytotoxicity. CHO-K1 (CHO) cells (American Type Culture Collection) and stearoyl-coenzyme A desaturase 1 (SCD1)-overexpressing CHO cells (27Listenberger L.L. Han X. Lewis S.E. Cases S. Farese Jr., R.V. Ory D.S. Schaffer J.E. Triglyceride accumulation protects against fatty acid-induced lipotoxicity.Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 2003; 100: 3077-3082Crossref PubMed Scopus (1381) Google Scholar) were maintained in high-glucose (4.5 mg/ml) DMEM and Ham's F-12 nutrient mixture (1:1), with 5% FBS, as described (27Listenberger L.L. Han X. Lewis S.E. Cases S. Farese Jr., R.V. Ory D.S. Schaffer J.E. Triglyceride accumulation protects against fatty acid-induced lipotoxicity.Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 2003; 100: 3077-3082Crossref PubMed Scopus (1381) Google Scholar). H9c2 rat cardiomyoblasts (American Type Culture Collection) were maintained in high-glucose DMEM with 10% FBS, as described (14Borradaile N.M. Buhman K.K. Listenberger L.L. Magee C.J. Morimoto E.T. Ory D.S. Schaffer J.E. A critical role for eukaryotic elongation factor 1A-1 in lipotoxic cell death.Mol. Biol. Cell. 2006; 17: 770-778Crossref PubMed Scopus (117) Google Scholar). For experiments, all CHO and H9c2 cell lines (90% confluent) were incubated in CHO cell growth medium supplemented with palmitate (500 μM) or oleate (500 μM) (Nu-Chek Prep) complexed to BSA at a 2:1 molar ratio, prepared as described previously (13Listenberger L.L. Ory D.S. Schaffer J.E. Palmitate-induced apoptosis can occur through a ceramide-independent pathway.J. Biol. Chem. 2001; 276: 14890-14895Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (481) Google Scholar). 5-Aminoimidazole-4-carboxamide-1-β-4-ribofuranoside (AICAr) was from Calbiochem; etomoxir, H2O2, α-tocopherol (vitamin E), thapsigargin, and DMSO were from Sigma. CHO cells were incubated for 1 h with [9,10-3H]palmitate (Perkin-Elmer), [9,10-3H]oleate (Perkin-Elmer), or [9,10-3H]2-bromopalmitate (American Radiochemicals) at a specific activity of 10 μCi/mmol. Crude mitochondria, cytosol, smooth microsomes, and rough microsomes were isolated by homogenization and sequential centrifugation, as described previously (28Nigam S.K. Blobel G. Cyclic AMP-dependent protein kinase in canine pancreatic rough endoplasmic reticulum.J. Biol. Chem. 1989; 264: 16927-16932Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Google Scholar). Radioactivity in each fraction was measured using a Beckman LS 6000IC scintillation counter and normalized to the total protein in each fraction (BCA Protein Assay; Pierce). The relative purity of the isolated fractions was assessed by immunoblotting using rabbit polyclonal antibodies against histone H1 (Stressgen), long-chain acyl-CoA dehydrogenase [a gift from A. Strauss (29Hainline B.E. Kahlenbeck D.J. Grant J. Strauss A.W. Tissue specific and developmental expression of rat long- and medium-chain acyl-CoA dehydrogenases.Biochim. Biophys. Acta. 1993; 1216: 460-468Crossref PubMed Scopus (38) Google Scholar)], and p63 [a gift from J. Rohrer (30Schweizer A. Rohrer J. Slot J.W. Geuze H.J. Kornfeld S. Reassessment of the subcellular localization of p63.J. Cell Sci. 1995; 108: 2477-2485PubMed Google Scholar)]. CHO cells were incubated for 1 h in the absence or presence of 500 μM [7,7,8,8-2H]palmitate (Cambridge Isotope). Rough microsomes were isolated as described above. Lipids were extracted and lipid species were identified and quantitated by electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (31Han X. Gross R.W. Shotgun lipidomics: multidimensional MS analysis of cellular lipidomes.Expert Rev. Proteomics. 2005; 2: 253-264Crossref PubMed Scopus (215) Google Scholar, 32Han X. Gross R.W. Shotgun lipidomics: electrospray ionization mass spectrometric analysis and quantitation of cellular lipidomes directly from crude extracts of biological samples.Mass Spectrom. Rev. 2005; 24: 367-412Crossref PubMed Scopus (907) Google Scholar). The mass levels of phosphatidylethanolamine were not determined in this study. CHO cells were harvested, fixed with 2.5% glutaraldehyde in 0.1 M sodium cacodylate buffer, postfixed in 1.25% osmium tetroxide, and stained with 4% aqueous uranyl acetate. Embedded tissue was then thin-sectioned and viewed on a Zeiss 902 electron microscope. Glutaraldehyde, osmium tetroxide, and uranyl acetate were from Electron Microscopy Sciences. Crude cytosolic and membrane/organelle fractions were isolated from CHO cells by sequential detergent extraction using ProteoExtract reagents from Calbiochem (33Abdolzade-Bavil A. Hayes S. Goretzki L. Kroger M. Anders J. Hendriks R. Convenient and versatile subcellular extraction procedure, that facilitates classical protein expression profiling and functional protein analysis.Proteomics. 2004; 4: 1397-1405Crossref PubMed Scopus (67) Google Scholar). Based on our preliminary assessment of the distribution of marker proteins, an alternative method of homogenization and sequential centrifugation (34Nigam S.K. Goldberg A.L. Ho S. Rohde M.F. Bush K.T. Sherman M. A set of endoplasmic reticulum proteins possessing properties of molecular chaperones includes Ca(2+)-binding proteins and members of the thioredoxin superfamily.J. Biol. Chem. 1994; 269: 1744-1749Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Google Scholar) was required to isolate cytosolic and crude microsomal fractions from H9c2 cells. Glucose-regulated protein 78 (GRP78) and protein disulfide isomerase (PDI) in 7.5–20 μg of protein from each subcellular fraction were detected using rabbit polyclonal antibodies (Stressgen). Cytochrome c in 40–80 μg of protein from crude mitochondrial and cytosolic fractions, isolated by sequential centrifugation, was detected using a monoclonal antibody (BD Biosciences). Palmitate-induced depletion of thapsigargin-sensitive calcium stores was assessed using the Fluo-4 NW calcium assay kit (Molecular Probes, Invitrogen) in a 96-well plate format, according to the manufacturer's protocol. After incubation with palmitate, cells were loaded with Fluo-4 AM in the presence of 2.5 mM probenicid. Thapsigargin (1 μM) or vehicle (DMSO) was added immediately, and fluorescence at 2 min was measured using a Hidex plate reader (excitation at 485 nm and emission at 535 nm). Data were expressed as fluorescent increments (change in fluorescence) upon addition of thapsigargin. Depolarization of mitochondria was assessed using the potential-dependent dye, JC-1 (Molecular Probes, Invitrogen). CHO cells incubated for up to 5 h with 500 μM palmitate or 2.5 mM H2O2 were stained with 7.5 μM JC-1 at 37°C, according to the manufacturer's protocol. Mean red and green fluorescence were determined by flow cytometry (104 cells/sample) for subsequent calculation of mean FL2/FL1 ratios. The presence of intact mitochondria was assessed using MitoTracker Green FM (Molecular Probes, Invitrogen). CHO cells incubated for up to 18 h with 500 μM palmitate or 2.5 mM H2O2 were stained for 30 min with 20 nM MitoTracker Green FM at 37°C, according to the manufacturer's protocol. Mean fluorescence was determined by flow cytometry (104 cells/sample). Activation of caspases-3 and -7 was determined by immunoblotting of cytosolic (40 μg of protein) and microsomal (70 μg of protein) fractions from H9c2 cells incubated for up to 24 h with various treatments. Rabbit polyclonal antibodies were used to simultaneously detect both pro- (inactive) and cleaved (active) forms of each caspase (Cell Signaling Technologies). Cell death was assessed by membrane permeability to propidium iodide, as described previously (13Listenberger L.L. Ory D.S. Schaffer J.E. Palmitate-induced apoptosis can occur through a ceramide-independent pathway.J. Biol. Chem. 2001; 276: 14890-14895Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (481) Google Scholar). Briefly, CHO and H9c2 cells incubated for 24–48 h with various treatments were harvested by trypsinization and stained with 1 μM propidium iodide. The percentage of propidium iodide-positive cells was determined by flow cytometry (104 cells/sample). Previous studies have identified the ER as a target of palmitate-induced lipotoxicity downstream of the generation of ROS (14Borradaile N.M. Buhman K.K. Listenberger L.L. Magee C.J. Morimoto E.T. Ory D.S. Schaffer J.E. A critical role for eukaryotic elongation factor 1A-1 in lipotoxic cell death.Mol. Biol. Cell. 2006; 17: 770-778Crossref PubMed Scopus (117) Google Scholar). To test the hypothesis that palmitate may also impair ER function more directly through its rapid incorporation into the ER membrane, we determined the subcellular distribution of palmitate within 1 h of exposure to a lipotoxic dose. CHO cells were incubated with 500 μM palmitate containing a trace amount of [3H]palmitate. Subsequent subcellular fractionation revealed that the bulk of the label was distributed between the crude mitochondrial fraction (58.00 ± 0.03%) and the rough microsomal fraction (22.90 ± 0.03%) (Fig. 1A ). Although a significant proportion of [3H]palmitate was associated with the relatively pure rough microsomal fraction, composed predominantly of rough ER, the crude mitochondria were contaminated with rough microsomes (Fig. 1C), indicating that the calculated percentage distribution actually underestimates the incorporation of palmitate into the rough ER. Similar distributions were observed upon labeling of CHO cells with oleate and upon labeling of CHO cells overexpressing SCD1 with palmitate. These SCD1-overexpressing cells have an increased capacity to introduce double bonds into palmitate by virtue of increased SCD1 activity (27Listenberger L.L. Han X. Lewis S.E. Cases S. Farese Jr., R.V. Ory D.S. Schaffer J.E. Triglyceride accumulation protects against fatty acid-induced lipotoxicity.Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 2003; 100: 3077-3082Crossref PubMed Scopus (1381) Google Scholar). Thus, exogenous saturated and unsaturated FAs are channeled quickly to the ER as well as to the mitochondria. This distribution is independent of lipotoxicity, which occurs in CHO cells treated with palmitate but not in CHO cells treated with oleate or SCD1-overexpressing cells treated with palmitate (27Listenberger L.L. Han X. Lewis S.E. Cases S. Farese Jr., R.V. Ory D.S. Schaffer J.E. Triglyceride accumulation protects against fatty acid-induced lipotoxicity.Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 2003; 100: 3077-3082Crossref PubMed Scopus (1381) Google Scholar). To determine whether modulating β-oxidation could alter the distribution observed with 500 μM palmitate, the same experiment was conducted in the presence of either etomoxir (an inhibitor of carnitine palmitoyl transferase 1) or AICAr [an activator of AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK)] (Fig. 1A). These compounds were used at doses established previously to effectively inhibit or increase β-oxidation (35El-Assaad W. Buteau J. Peyot M.L. Nolan C. Roduit R. Hardy S. Joly E. Dbaibo G. Rosenberg L. Prentki M. Saturated fatty acids synergize with elevated glucose to cause pancreatic beta-cell death.Endocrinology. 2003; 144: 4154-4163Crossref PubMed Scopus (472) Google Scholar, 36Mishra R. Simonson M.S. Saturated free fatty acids and apoptosis in microvascular mesangial cells: palmitate activates pro-apoptotic signaling involving caspase 9 and mitochondrial release of endonuclease G.Cardiovasc. Diabetol. 2005; 4: 2Crossref PubMed Scopus (56) Google Scholar). Etomoxir did not alter the subcellular distribution of [3H]palmitate within 1 h, whereas AICAr reduced the incorporation of palmitate into rough microsomes by ∼50%. Palmitate incorporation into mitochondria was also reduced in the presence of AICAr by ∼30%. The latter likely reflects a combination of decreased palmitate incorporation into rough microsomal membranes (which contaminate the crude mitochondrial fraction) and increased mitochondrial oxidation of palmitate. The distribution of palmitate observed with a nontoxic concentration of palmitate (5 μM) was nearly identical to that observed with 500 μM (Fig. 1B), suggesting that the initial trafficking of this fatty acid to various subcellular locations is not concentration-dependent. In contrast, the relative distribution of 2-bromopalmitate, used as a nonlipotoxic control, was markedly different, with the bulk of the label remaining in the cytosol (Fig. 1B). This modified fatty acid is not as good a substrate for acyl-CoA synthetases (37Oakes N.D. Kjellstedt A. Forsberg G.B. Clementz T. Camejo G. Furler S.M. Kraegen E.W. Olwegard-Halvarsson M. Jenkins A.B. Ljung B. Development and initial evaluation of a novel method for assessing tissue-specific plasma free fatty acid utilization in vivo using (R)-2-bromopalmitate tracer.J. Lipid Res. 1999; 40: 1155-1169Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Google Scholar), resulting in limited uptake and toxicity compared with palmitate (4.4 ± 0.8% and 5.2 ± 0.4% cell death at 24 h for control and 500 μM 2-bromopalmitate, respectively). To assess the consequences of palmitate incorporation into rough microsomes on the composition of these membranes, we analyzed both newly synthesized and total lipids in this fraction after a 1 h incubation with 500 μM [2H]palmitate. The largest percentage of exogenous palmitate was incorporated into phosphatidylcholine (PC) species. However, significant proportions also remained as FFA or were incorporated into TAG species (Table 1, column 4). Overall, rough microsomes were composed primarily of PC and FFA, with very limited TAG content, corresponding to 50, 27, and 5% of the examined lipid mass content, respectively (Table 1, column 2). Thus, the labeled proportions of the rough microsomal pools of PC and FFA were relatively small, whereas the labeled proportion of the rough microsomal pool of TAG was significantly larger (Table 1, column 5). Unsaturated FAs make up the vast majority (81%) of acyl chain substituents in CHO cells under basal conditions (Table 2 ). Strikingly, the proportions of saturated PC and TAG in these membranes were increased by 1.5-fold (from 1.56% to 2.40%) and 3.0-fold (from 6.39% to 19.59%), respectively, with no significant change in total content of lipid species (Table 2). Thus, the remodeling of PC and TAG species accounted for a significant 1.3-fold increase (from 18.55% to 24.91%) in the saturated lipid content of rough microsomes from CHO cells incubated for 1 h with 500 μM palmitate.TABLE 1Distribution of deuterated palmitate in rough microsomes from CHO cellsLipid SpeciesTotal LipidDeuterated LipidDistribution of LabelDeuterated Lipid/Total Lipidnmol/mg protein%PC58.01 ± 6.494.15 ± 0.6542.09 ± 5.477.12 ± 0.48PA2.02 ± 0.210.00 ± 0.000.00 ± 0.000.00 ± 0.00PG2.83 ± 0.330.00 ± 0.000.00 ± 0.000.00 ± 0.00PI6.97 ± 0.240.22 ± 0.032.26 ± 0.273.19 ± 0.38LPC1.39 ± 0.250.21 ± 0.022.13 ± 0.0915.71 ± 1.61SM7.09 ± 1.370.12 ± 0.061.16 ± 0.581.46 ± 0.50Cer0.34 ± 0.060.06 ± 0.010.65 ± 0.0819.06 ± 1.04FFA31.06 ± 0.242.93 ± 0.5230.42 ± 6.629.42 ± 1.61TAG5.60 ± 1.052.12 ± 0.6021.29 ± 5.6736.37 ± 4.13Total115.29 ± 8.299.82 ± 0.421008.59 ± 0.61CHO cells were incubated for 1 h with 500 μM [7,7,8,8-2H]palmitate complexed to BSA at a molar ratio of 2:1. Rough microsomes were isolated by sequential centrifugation. Lipids were extracted and quantitated by electrospray ionization mass spectrometry. PC, phosphatidylcholine; PA, phosphatidic acid; PG, phosphatidylglycerol; PI, phosphatidylinositol; LPC, lysophosphatidylcholine; SM, sphingomyelin; Cer, ceramide; TAG, triacylglycerol. Values are means ± SEM. Open table in a new tab TABLE 2Lipid composition of rough microsomes from CHO cellsControlPalmitate-TreatedLipid SpeciesTotal Lipid (TL)Saturated Lipid (SL)SL/TLTotal Lipid (TL)Saturated Lipid (SL)SL/TLnmol/mg protein%nmol/mg protein%PC80.69 ± 11.731.22 ± 0.101.56 ± 0.1558.01 ± 6.491.43 ± 0.312.40 ± 0.27aP < 0.05 for control versus palmitate-treated.PA2.27 ± 0.120.00 ± 0.000.00 ± 0.002.02 ± 0.210.00 ± 0.000.00 ± 0.00PG3.63 ± 0.260.29 ± 0.027.90 ± 0.192.83 ± 0.330.23 ± 0.058.06 ± 0.87PI10.79 ± 1.550.00 ± 0.000.00 ± 0.006.97 ± 0.240.00 ± 0.000.00 ± 0.00LPC2.48 ± 0.531.46 ± 0.3558.07 ± 1.901.39 ± 0.250.83 ± 0.1360.70 ± 2.41SM8.28 ± 1.285.84 ± 1.0969.63 ± 3.247.09 ± 1.374.98 ± 0.8870.72 ± 1.52Cer0.66 ± 0.120.49 ± 0.1073.56 ± 3.700.34 ± 0.060.24 ± 0.0568.68 ± 2.86FFA29.29 ± 1.0216.91 ± 0.9457.65 ± 1.5131.06 ± 0.2419.