Adipocyte differentiation is regulated both positively and negatively by external growth factors such as insulin, platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF), and epidermal growth factor (EGF). A key component of the adipocyte differentiation process is PPARγ, peroxisomal proliferator-activated receptor γ. To determine the relationship between PPARγ activation and growth factor stimulation in adipogenesis, we investigated the effects of PDGF and EGF on PPARγ1 activity. PDGF treatment decreased ligand-activated PPARγ1 transcriptional activity in a transient reporter assay.In vivo [32P]orthophosphate labeling experiments demonstrated that PPARγ1 is a phosphoprotein that undergoes EGF-stimulated MEK/mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase-dependent phosphorylation. Purified PPARγ1 protein was phosphorylated in vitro by recombinant activated MAP kinase. Examination of the PPARγ1 sequence revealed a single MAP kinase consensus recognition site at Ser82. Mutation of Ser82 to Ala inhibited both in vitro andin vivo phosphorylation and growth factor-mediated transcriptional repression. Therefore, phosphorylation of PPARγ1 by MAP kinase contributes to the reduction of PPARγ1 transcriptional activity by growth factor treatment. Adipocyte differentiation is regulated both positively and negatively by external growth factors such as insulin, platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF), and epidermal growth factor (EGF). A key component of the adipocyte differentiation process is PPARγ, peroxisomal proliferator-activated receptor γ. To determine the relationship between PPARγ activation and growth factor stimulation in adipogenesis, we investigated the effects of PDGF and EGF on PPARγ1 activity. PDGF treatment decreased ligand-activated PPARγ1 transcriptional activity in a transient reporter assay.In vivo [32P]orthophosphate labeling experiments demonstrated that PPARγ1 is a phosphoprotein that undergoes EGF-stimulated MEK/mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase-dependent phosphorylation. Purified PPARγ1 protein was phosphorylated in vitro by recombinant activated MAP kinase. Examination of the PPARγ1 sequence revealed a single MAP kinase consensus recognition site at Ser82. Mutation of Ser82 to Ala inhibited both in vitro andin vivo phosphorylation and growth factor-mediated transcriptional repression. Therefore, phosphorylation of PPARγ1 by MAP kinase contributes to the reduction of PPARγ1 transcriptional activity by growth factor treatment. Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs) 1The abbreviations used are: PPAR, peroxisomal proliferator-activated receptor; MAP, mitogen-activated protein; RXR, retinoic acid-like receptor; EGF, epidermal growth factor; PDGF, platelet-derived growth factor; MEK, MAP kinase kinase; CA-MEK, constitutively active MEK; MBP, maltose-binding protein; TK, thymidine kinase; PPRE, peroxisome proliferator response element; ARE7, adipocyte regulatory factor response element. are members of the nuclear hormone receptor superfamily (1Evans R.M. Science. 1988; 240: 889-895Crossref PubMed Scopus (6341) Google Scholar). These receptors heterodimerize with retinoic acid-like receptor, RXR, and become transcriptionally active when bound to ligand. The three PPAR isoforms (α, δ, and γ) differ in their C-terminal ligand binding domains, and each appears to bind and respond to a specific subset of agents including hypolipidemic drugs, long chain fatty acids, aracadonic acid metabolites, and antidiabetic thiazolidinediones (2Issemann I. Green S. Nature. 1990; 347: 645-650Crossref PubMed Scopus (3059) Google Scholar, 3Forman B. Tontonoz P. Chen J. Brun R. Spiegelman B. Evans R. Cell. 1995; 83: 803-812Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (2740) Google Scholar, 4Kliewer S. Lenhard J. Willson T. Patel I. Morris D. Lehmann J. Cell. 1995; 83: 813-819Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (1872) Google Scholar). PPARγ is expressed predominantly in mouse white and brown fat, with lower levels in liver, whereas PPARα is present in heart, kidney, and liver (5Chawla A. Lazar M. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 1994; 91: 1786-1790Crossref PubMed Scopus (218) Google Scholar, 6Tontonoz, P., Hu, E., Graves, R., Budavari, A., and Spiegelman, B. (1994) Genes & Dev. 1224–1234Google Scholar). PPARδ expression is ubiquitous (7Kliewer S.A. Forman B.M. Blumberg B. Ong E.S. Borgmeyer U. Mangelsdorf D.J. Umesono K. Evans R.M. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 1994; 91: 7355-7359Crossref PubMed Scopus (1281) Google Scholar, 8Amri E.Z. Bonino F. Ailhaud G. Abumrad N.A. Grimaldi P.A. J. Biol. Chem. 1995; 270: 2367-2371Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (353) Google Scholar). Ectopic expression of either PPARα or PPARγ in NIH-3T3 cells is sufficient to induce adipocyte differentiation in the presence of PPARγ activators (9Tontonoz P. Hu E. Spiegelman B. Cell. 1994; 79: 1147-1156Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (3132) Google Scholar, 10Brun R. Tontonoz P. Forman B. Ellis R. Chen J. Evans R. Spiegelman B. Genes & Dev. 1996; 10: 974-984Crossref PubMed Scopus (411) Google Scholar). The rapid induction of PPARγ during adipocyte differentiation and its enriched expression in adipose tissues suggest that PPARγ is responsible for the initiation and maintenance of the adipocyte phenotype in vivo (9Tontonoz P. Hu E. Spiegelman B. Cell. 1994; 79: 1147-1156Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (3132) Google Scholar). Previously two isotypes of PPARγ (PPARγ1 and PPARγ2) have been identified in 3T3-L1 adipocytes (11Tontonoz P. Graves R. Budavari A. Erdjument-Bromage M. Hu E. Tempst P. Spiegelman B. Nucleic Acids Res. 1994; 22: 5623-5634Crossref Scopus (330) Google Scholar). Zhu et al. (12Zhu Y. Qi C. Korenberg J. Chen X. Noya D. Rao S. Reddy J. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 1995; 92: 7921-7925Crossref PubMed Scopus (606) Google Scholar) have demonstrated that these two isotypes are derived from a single PPARγ gene by alternative promoter usage and RNA splicing. However, thus far, no functional difference has been found between the two isotypes. Adipogenesis is a complex process; multiple hormones and factors regulate the conversion of progenitor cells to adipocytes. Insulin and/or insulin-like growth factor enhance the ability of PPAR ligand to induce differentiation of both 3T3-L1- and PPARγ-overexpressing cell lines (9Tontonoz P. Hu E. Spiegelman B. Cell. 1994; 79: 1147-1156Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (3132) Google Scholar, 13Tafuri S.R. Endocrinology. 1996; 137: 4706-4712Crossref PubMed Scopus (146) Google Scholar). In contrast, growth factors such as epidermal growth factor (EGF), platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF), and fibroblast growth factor inhibit adipocyte conversion (14Serrero G. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 1987; 146: 194-202Crossref PubMed Scopus (64) Google Scholar, 15Navre M. Ringold G.M. J. Cell Biol. 1989; 109: 1857-1863Crossref PubMed Scopus (54) Google Scholar, 16Serrero G. Mills D. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 1991; 88: 3912-3916Crossref PubMed Scopus (75) Google Scholar, 17Adachi H. Kurachi H. Homma H. Adachi K. Imai T. Morishige K. Matxuzawa Y. Miyake A. Endocrinology. 1994; 135: 1824-1830Crossref PubMed Scopus (34) Google Scholar, 18Brauer-Krieger H.I. Kather H. Biochem. J. 1995; 307: 549-556Crossref PubMed Scopus (119) Google Scholar). In this report, we find that activation of EGF and PDGF receptors and subsequent phosphorylation of PPARγ1 by the MAP kinase signaling pathway decreases PPARγ1 transcriptional activity. This repression is mediated by MAP kinase phosphorylation of Ser82 on PPARγ1. These studies identify PPARγ1 as a substrate of MAP kinase and provide evidence for regulation of PPARγ1 activity by phosphorylation. Cell culture reagents were purchased from Life Technologies, Inc. The ECL detection system and carrier-free [32P]orthophosphate were obtained from Amersham Corp. The PDGF was purchased from Intergen, while EGF was from Harlan. PD98059 and BRL49653 were synthesized at Parke-Davis Pharmaceutical Research Division of Warner-Lambert Co. For eukaryotic expression of PPARγ1 and RXRα, the entire PPARγ1 or RXRα cDNA was inserted 3′ to the cytomegalovirus promoter in pSG5 (Stratagene). Constitutively active MAP kinase kinase (CA-MEK), which contains mutations at Ser218 to Glu and Ser222to Glu was obtained from Dr. S. Decker (Parke-Davis). Site-directed mutagenesis of PPARγ1/pSG5 was conducted using the MORPH site-specific plasmid DNA mutagenesis system (5 Prime → 3 Prime, Inc., Boulder, CO). The oligonucleotide used in mutagenesis was CAAAGTAGAACCTGCAGCTCCACCTTATTATTCTGAAAAGACCC and changed Ser82 to Ala. The reporter construct used in the transfections contained three copies of the PPRE site from the aP2 enhancer (ARE7) inserted upstream of a minimal thymidine kinase (TK) promoter in the pGL3 basic luciferase vector (a gift from Dr. R. Wyborski). All constructs were sequenced prior to use. For the transient transfection, NIH 3T3 cells were grown in 10% fetal calf serum/Dulbecco's modified Eagle's medium and co-transfected with various expression plasmids and pCMV β-galactosidase plasmid (Clontech) using Lipofectamine (Life Technologies, Inc.). After recovery, cells were placed in 0.5% bovine serum albumin/Dulbecco's modified Eagle's medium for 5 h and then treated with 25 μm BRL49653 and/or 100 ng/ml PDGF for 16 h. Luciferase and β-galactosidase activities were determined using a Luciferase assay (Promega) and the Galacto-light system (Tropix, Inc.). To express the maltose-binding protein (MBP) fusion proteins in Escherichia coli, the coding regions of PPARγ1, PPARδ, and RXRα were inserted downstream of the isopropyl-β-d-thiogalactopyranoside-inducible MalE-lacZα gene fusion in the pMAL-C2 plasmid (New England Biolabs). Protein expression was induced with isopropyl-β-d-thiogalactopyranoside, and the fusion proteins were partially purified by amylose affinity chromatography (19Maina C.V. Riggs P.D. Grandea A.G. Slatko B.E. Moran L.S. Tagliamonte J.A. McReynolds L.A. Guan C.D. Gene (Amst.). 1988; 74: 365-373Crossref PubMed Scopus (462) Google Scholar). In vitro phosphorylation of MBP, MBP-PPARγ1, and MBP-PPARδ by MAP kinase was performed as described previously (20Dudley D. Pang L. Decker S. Bridges A. Saltiel A. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 1995; 92: 7686-7689Crossref PubMed Scopus (2595) Google Scholar) using a bacterially expressed glutathione S-transferase fusion protein of 44-kDa MAP kinase (GST-MAP kinase) and the 45-kDa MEK (GST-MEK1). Using a PPARγ-specific polyclonal antibody (produced using the MBP-PPARγ fusion protein), 2H. Camp, A. L. Whitton, and S. T. Tafuri, submitted for publication. in vitro translated PPARγ1 and the mutant PPARγ1 (S82A) were immunoprecipitated and phosphorylated by active GST-MAP kinase as described above. Approximately 0.5 μg of the partially pure MBP-PPARγ1, phosphorylated or unphosphorylated, and 0.5 μg of MBP-RXRα protein were preincubated for 15 min in 1 × mobility shift assay buffer (15 mm Hepes, pH 7.0, 80 mm KCl, 10% glycerol, 1 μg of poly(dI-dC), 0.2 mm EDTA, and 0.4 mm dithiothreitol) to allow heterodimer formation, or MBP-PPARγ1 was phosphorylated prior to heterodimerization with MBP-RXRα. Approximately 20 fmol of a32P-labeled double-stranded ARE7 PPRE-containing oligonucleotide probe (5′-AATTCAAGGCAGAAAGTGAACTCTGATCCAGTAAGAAG-3′) was added to the protein mix and incubated at room temperature for 20 min. Protein-DNA complexes were analyzed in 5% 1 × TBE polyacrylamide gels. 293T cells were maintained in Dulbecco's modified Eagle's medium containing 10% fetal calf serum (Life Technologies, Inc.) and transfected using a calcium phosphate transfection protocol according to the manufacturer (Stratagene). For in vivo labeling, transfected cells were serum-starved overnight in 0.5% bovine serum albumin/Dulbecco's modified Eagle's medium, pretreated with phosphate-free medium for 1 h, and subsequently incubated in 0.8 mCi of [32P]orthophosphate at 37 °C for 3 h. Cells were preincubated with either BRL49653 (25 μm) or PD98059 (40 μm) for 15 min followed by the addition of EGF (100 ng/ml). EGF stimulation proceeded for 5 or 15 min prior to removal of the media and cell lysis. Cells were harvested in radioimmune precipitation lysis buffer (10% glycerol, 137 mm NaCl, 1% Nonidet P-40, 0.5% deoxycholate, 0.1% SDS, 20 mm Tris, pH 8.0, 2 mm EDTA, complete protease inhibitors, and 20 mm NaVO4). Whole cell extracts were immunoprecipitated with anti-PPARγ antibody and protein A-Sepharose (Life Technologies, Inc.) for 16 h at 4 °C and resolved in 10% SDS-PAGE. To detect MAP kinase activity in 293T cells, whole cell lysates were prepared and subjected to Western blot analysis using the anti-active MAP kinase antibody (Promega) and ECL system (Amersham). Transcription reporter assays were used to determine the effect of growth factors on the transcriptional activity of PPARγ1. The luciferase reporter constructs used in NIH3T3 cells contained the TK promoter (TKpGL3) or three copies of ARE7 PPRE elements upstream of the TK promoter (ARE7-TKpGL3). In the absence of co-transfected PPARγ1 and RXRα expression plasmids, no PPARγ ligand (BRL49653)-dependent transcription was observed from either the TkpGL3 or ARE7-TKpGL3 (Fig. 1 A). In the presence of PPARγ1 and RXRα, a 2-fold increase in transcription was observed from ARE7-TK reporter after 16 h of treatment with BRL49653. The addition of 100 ng/ml PDGF to these cells decreased both the basal and BRL49653-activated transcription from the ARE7. This suggests that at least a fraction of the activity from the ARE7-TKpGL3 plasmid in the absence of exogenously added ligand is due to the activation of the PPARγ1·RXRα heterodimer by endogenous ligands. This activity was also reduced by PDGF treatment. Close examination of the PPARγ amino acid sequence revealed that PPARγ1 contains one serine residue, Ser82, whose surrounding amino acids correspond to the consensus phosphorylation site for MAP kinase (Fig. 2 A) (22Gonzalez F.A. Raden D.L. Davis R.J. J. Biol. Chem. 1991; 266: 22159-22163Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Google Scholar). This site is absolutely conserved between human and mouse PPARγ1. A variation of the MAP kinase consensus site is also found in mouse PPARα at a similar position in the amino acid sequence. PPARδ lacks this site altogether (Fig. 2 A). Since both EGF and PDGF are known to activate MAP kinase in vivo, a CA-MEK that constitutively activates MAP kinase was co-transfected with ARE7-TKpGL3, PPARγ1, and RXRα expression plasmids. As shown in Fig. 1 B, CA-MEK decreased both the basal and the ligand-dependent PPARγ1 transcriptional activity in a dose-dependent manner. No significant effect was seen with the TKpGL3 parental reporter construct. This suggests that the intracellular signaling pathways activated by PDGF or EGF can modulate PPARγ1-dependent transcriptional activity. To determine if PPARγ1 can be phosphorylated by MAP kinase in vitro, partially purified MBP, MBP-PPARγ1, or MBP-PPARδ fusion proteins were incubated with preactivated GST-MAP kinase and [γ-32P]ATP under conditions that phosphorylate myelin basic protein, a known MAP kinase substrate. As shown in Fig. 2 B, MAP kinase efficiently phosphorylated PPARγ1 but not MBP-PPARδ or maltose-binding protein (data not shown). Coomassie staining verified that nearly equal amounts of intact proteins were loaded (Fig. 2 C). To determine if Ser82 is the residue phosphorylated in vitro, a mutation was introduced into PPARγ1 that changed Ser82 to Ala. Both the wild type PPARγ1 and the mutant PPARγ1 (S82A) werein vitro translated and immunoprecipitated with a polyclonal anti-PPARγ antibody. The immunoprecipitated products were used as substrates in the in vitro MAP kinase assay. Mutation at Ser82 to Ala completely abolished the MAP kinase-dependent phosphorylation of PPARγ1 (Fig.2 D), indicating that the Ser82 is the only amino acid in PPARγ1 that is phosphorylated by MAP kinase. Fig.2 E represents the PPARγ antibody Western blot of thein vitro translated proteins and shows that both proteins were expressed in the reticulocyte extracts. To determine if PPARγ1 is phosphorylated by growth factor treatment, 293T cells were transfected with PPARγ1, serum-starved for 24 h, and incubated with [32P]orthophosphate. To maintain more physiologic conditions, no phosphatase inhibitors were added to the cells prior to lysis. Whole cell lysates were prepared after EGF treatment and immunoprecipitated with a PPARγ-specific antibody. PPARγ1 was weakly phosphorylated in the absence of sera and growth factors; however, treatment with 100 ng/ml of EGF for 5 or 15 min increased PPARγ1 phosphorylation 1.5- and 1.8-fold, respectively (Fig.3 A, lanes 3 and 4). In 293T cells, EGF treatment stimulated MAP kinase activity as determined by Western blot analysis with the anti-active MAP kinase antibody (Fig.3 B, lanes 1 and 2). To determine if the MAP kinase signaling pathway is involved in the phosphorylation of PPARγ1, the transfected cells were pretreated with 40 μm PD98059, a specific MEK inhibitor (20Dudley D. Pang L. Decker S. Bridges A. Saltiel A. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 1995; 92: 7686-7689Crossref PubMed Scopus (2595) Google Scholar) for 15 min prior to EGF treatment. PD98059 prevented EGF-stimulated phosphorylation of PPARγ1 (Fig. 3 A, lane 6), suggesting that MAP kinase activation is involved in the phosphorylation of PPARγ1. At this concentration, PD98059 inhibited MAP kinase activation by EGF (Fig. 3 B, lane 3). Interestingly, pretreatment of the cells with 25 μmBRL49653 for 15 min also reduced the EGF-dependent phosphorylation of PPARγ1 (Fig. 3 A, lane 5) without affecting the ability of EGF to stimulate MAP kinase activity (Fig. 3 B, lane 4). This implies that occupation of the ligand binding domain may inhibit the ability of MAP kinase to recognize and/or phosphorylate PPARγ1. To determine if Ser82 is the residue-phosphorylated in vivo in response to EGF treatment, the Ser82 → Ala PPARγ1 mutant was introduced into 293T cells, and in vivo labeling was performed in the presence and absence of 100 ng/ml EGF (Fig.4 A). Although phosphorylation of the wild type PPARγ1 was enhanced by EGF treatment as before, phosphorylation of the mutant was unaffected. Similar amounts of both mutant and wild type protein were expressed in the transfected cells, as shown by Western blot analysis (Fig. 4 B). Since all PPARγ1 phosphorylation was abolished by this mutation, this result demonstrates that the MAP kinase site at Ser82 is the only phosphorylation site on PPARγ1. To verify that the negative regulation of PPARγ1 by growth factors was dependent upon PPARγ1 phosphorylation, NIH 3T3 cells were co-transfected with either the wild type PPARγ1 or Ser82→ Ala PPARγ1 mutant and ARE7-TKpGL3. Transfected cells were then treated with BRL49653 in the presence or absence of PDGF. Neither basal nor BRL49653-stimulated activity was affected by the Ser82→ Ala mutant. In contrast, the activity of the Ser82 → Ala mutant PPARγ1 was resistant to PDGF-mediated repression (Fig.5). To determine if phosphorylation affects PPARγ1 DNA binding, a mobility shift assay was performed on a labeled double-stranded oligonucleotide containing the ARE7 PPRE with bothin vitro phosphorylated and unphosphorylated MBP-PPARγ1. As previously reported, PPARγ1 (Fig. 6, lane 2) alone did not bind to the ARE7 element (6Tontonoz, P., Hu, E., Graves, R., Budavari, A., and Spiegelman, B. (1994) Genes & Dev. 1224–1234Google Scholar). However, in the presence of RXRα, both the phosphorylated and unphosphorylated forms of PPARγ1 bound equally well to the ARE7 probe (Fig. 6, lanes 3 and 5). In addition, phosphorylation of preformed PPARγ1·RXRα heterodimer prior to mobility shift assay did not alter PPARγ1 DNA binding. The complexity of gene expression requires the utilization of multiple regulatory mechanisms to control both the quantity and activity of all components of the transcription machinery including upstream enhancer proteins. In this study, we have shown that activation of the MAP kinase signaling pathway by EGF and PDGF induces the phosphorylation of PPARγ1 on Ser82 and that this event decreases the ability of PPARγ1 to activate transcription. Mutation of the phosphorylated residue (Ser82) prevents PPARγ1 phosphorylation as well as the growth factor-mediated repression of PPARγ1-dependent transcription. This phosphorylation-mediated transcriptional repression is not due to a reduced capacity of the PPARγ1·RXRα complex to heterodimerize or recognize its DNA binding site but is due to its ability to become transcriptionally activated by ligand. The activity of several nuclear hormone receptors is regulated by phosphorylation. Okadaic acid-induced phosphorylation of the human β1 thyroid receptor enhances the DNA binding capacity of the protein and increases the ligand-mediated transcription (23Lin K. Ashizawa K. Cheng S. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 1992; 89: 7737-7741Crossref PubMed Scopus (69) Google Scholar). Phosphorylation of retinoic acid receptor α and RXRα modulates heterodimerization of the receptors and consequently increases DNA binding activity (24Lefebvre M.-P. Gaub M. Tahayato A. Rochette-Egly C. Formstecher P. J. Biol. Chem. 1995; 270: 10806-10816Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (47) Google Scholar). In addition, the MAP kinase-dependent phosphorylation of Ser118 on the estrogen receptor causes a 1.8–2.3-fold increase in transcriptional activation by the AF1 domain (25Kato S. Endoh H. Masuhiro Y. Kitamoto T. Uchiyama S. Sasaki H. Masushige S. Gotoh Y. Nishida E. Kawashima H. Metzger D. Chambon P. Science. 1995; 270: 1491-1494Crossref PubMed Scopus (1722) Google Scholar). Taken together, these data suggest that in general phosphorylation of nuclear receptors enhances their transcriptional activity. In contrast, our data suggest that MAP kinase phosphorylation of PPARγ1 negatively regulates its function. EGF, PDGF, and fibroblast growth factor inhibit the conversion of 3T3-L1 preadipocytes to adipocytes (15Navre M. Ringold G.M. J. Cell Biol. 1989; 109: 1857-1863Crossref PubMed Scopus (54) Google Scholar, 17Adachi H. Kurachi H. Homma H. Adachi K. Imai T. Morishige K. Matxuzawa Y. Miyake A. Endocrinology. 1994; 135: 1824-1830Crossref PubMed Scopus (34) Google Scholar, 18Brauer-Krieger H.I. Kather H. Biochem. J. 1995; 307: 549-556Crossref PubMed Scopus (119) Google Scholar). Moreover, primary rat adipogenic precursor cells are also inhibited from becoming adipocytes in the presence of EGF (14Serrero G. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 1987; 146: 194-202Crossref PubMed Scopus (64) Google Scholar), and EGF-treated animals show retardation of the development of adipose tissue (16Serrero G. Mills D. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 1991; 88: 3912-3916Crossref PubMed Scopus (75) Google Scholar). Although the precise mechanism of this inhibition is unknown, growth arrest is required for adipogenesis. It is presumed that activation of the intracellular signaling cascades by growth factors must interfere with the activity of the factors involved in differentiation. We suggest that this interference occurs with the activation of MAP kinase. The activation of MAP kinase by EGF or PDGF induces the phosphorylation of PPARγ1, which negatively regulates its activity, thereby preventing the progression of adipocyte differentiation. The one piece still missing in this puzzle is how insulin promotes adipocyte differentiation. Insulin, like other growth factors, induces MAP kinase activity in 3T3-L1 adipocytes. In fact, two recent publications suggest that insulin stimulation does induce the PPARγ1, PPARγ2, and PPARα phosphorylation (26Shalev A. Siegrist-Kaiser C. Yen P. Wahli W. Burger A. Chin W. Weier C. Mol. 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This suggests that the activation of transcription by insulin in their system occurs through a mechanism independent of the MAP kinase-induced phosphorylation of PPARγ. Tontonoz et al.(9Tontonoz P. Hu E. Spiegelman B. Cell. 1994; 79: 1147-1156Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (3132) Google Scholar) have shown that deletion of the N-terminal portion of PPARγ2, which lacks Ser82, enhances the ability of PPARγ to induce adipocyte differentiation. Moreover, recently Hu et al. (28Hu E. Kim J.B. Sarraf P. Spiegelman B.M. Science. 1996; 274: 2100-2103Crossref PubMed Scopus (941) Google Scholar) demonstrated that the ectopic expression of a mutant PPARγ2 (a serine to alanine mutation at position 112 in PPARγ2, which is equivalent to Ser82 of PPARγ1) enhanced sensitivity to ligand-induced adipogenesis. These results strongly support the conclusion of the present paper. Additional studies on adipocyte function show that although insulin activates MAP kinase in 3T3-L1 adipocytes, insulin-dependent metabolic responses such as glucose uptake, glycogen synthesis, and lipogenesis are unaffected by the inhibition of MAP kinase with the MEK inhibitor PD98059 (29Lazar D.F. Wiese R.J. Brady M.J. Mastick C.C. Waters S.B. Yamauchi K. Pessin J.E. Cuatrecasas P. Saltiel A.R. J. Biol. Chem. 1995; 270: 20801-20807Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (331) Google Scholar, 30Wiese R.J. Mastic C.C. Lazar D.F. Saltiel A.R. J. Biol. Chem. 1995; 270: 3442-3446Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (150) Google Scholar). In addition, the MEK inhibitor does not prevent or delay 3T3-L1 adipocyte differentiation (data not shown). 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Since pretreatment with BRL49653 decreased receptor phosphorylation in cell culture, we speculate that phosphorylation, possibly by hindering ligand binding or preventing changes in receptor conformation, plays a role in the selectivity and/or affinity of PPARγ for the cofactors. We thank Drs. S. Decker, R. Herrera, T. Leff, K. Pumiglia, and A. Saltiel for review of the manuscript and for helpful discussions. We thank Dr. D. Dudley for providing GST-MEK and GST-MAP kinase fusion proteins and Dr. S. Decker for CA-MEK and helpful suggestions.