World PsychiatryVolume 10, Issue 2 p. 138-151 Free Access Physical illness in patients with severe mental disorders. II. Barriers to care, monitoring and treatment guidelines, plus recommendations at the system and individual level MARC DE HERT, MARC DE HERT University Psychiatric Center, Catholic University Leuven, Leuvensesteenweg 517, 3070 Kortenberg, BelgiumSearch for more papers by this authorDAN COHEN, DAN COHEN Department for Severe Mental Illness, Mental Health Organization North-Holland North, Heerhugowaard; Department of Epidemiology, University of Groningen, The NetherlandsSearch for more papers by this authorJULIO BOBES, JULIO BOBES CIBERSAM; Department of Medicine - Psychiatry, University of Oviedo, SpainSearch for more papers by this authorMARCELO CETKOVICH-BAKMAS, MARCELO CETKOVICH-BAKMAS Department of Psychiatry, Institute of Cognitive Neurology, and Department of Psychiatry, Institute of Neurosciences, Favaloro University Hospital, Buenos Aires, ArgentinaSearch for more papers by this authorSTEFAN LEUCHT, STEFAN LEUCHT Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Technische Universität München, Munich, GermanySearch for more papers by this authorDAVID M. NDETEI, DAVID M. NDETEI University of Nairobi and Africa Mental Health Foundation, Nairobi, KenyaSearch for more papers by this authorJOHN W. NEWCOMER, JOHN W. NEWCOMER Department of Psychiatry, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USASearch for more papers by this authorRICHARD UWAKWE, RICHARD UWAKWE Faculty of Medicine, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Nnewi Campus, NigeriaSearch for more papers by this authorITSUO ASAI, ITSUO ASAI Japanese Society of Transcultural PsychiatrySearch for more papers by this authorHANS-JURGEN MÖLLER, HANS-JURGEN MÖLLER Department of Psychiatry, University of Munich, GermanySearch for more papers by this authorSHIV GAUTAM, SHIV GAUTAM Psychiatric Centre, Medical College, Jaipur, IndiaSearch for more papers by this authorJOHAN DETRAUX, JOHAN DETRAUX University Psychiatric Center, Catholic University Leuven, Leuvensesteenweg 517, 3070 Kortenberg, BelgiumSearch for more papers by this authorCHRISTOPH U. CORRELL, CHRISTOPH U. CORRELL Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY, USASearch for more papers by this author MARC DE HERT, MARC DE HERT University Psychiatric Center, Catholic University Leuven, Leuvensesteenweg 517, 3070 Kortenberg, BelgiumSearch for more papers by this authorDAN COHEN, DAN COHEN Department for Severe Mental Illness, Mental Health Organization North-Holland North, Heerhugowaard; Department of Epidemiology, University of Groningen, The NetherlandsSearch for more papers by this authorJULIO BOBES, JULIO BOBES CIBERSAM; Department of Medicine - Psychiatry, University of Oviedo, SpainSearch for more papers by this authorMARCELO CETKOVICH-BAKMAS, MARCELO CETKOVICH-BAKMAS Department of Psychiatry, Institute of Cognitive Neurology, and Department of Psychiatry, Institute of Neurosciences, Favaloro University Hospital, Buenos Aires, ArgentinaSearch for more papers by this authorSTEFAN LEUCHT, STEFAN LEUCHT Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Technische Universität München, Munich, GermanySearch for more papers by this authorDAVID M. NDETEI, DAVID M. NDETEI University of Nairobi and Africa Mental Health Foundation, Nairobi, KenyaSearch for more papers by this authorJOHN W. NEWCOMER, JOHN W. NEWCOMER Department of Psychiatry, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USASearch for more papers by this authorRICHARD UWAKWE, RICHARD UWAKWE Faculty of Medicine, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Nnewi Campus, NigeriaSearch for more papers by this authorITSUO ASAI, ITSUO ASAI Japanese Society of Transcultural PsychiatrySearch for more papers by this authorHANS-JURGEN MÖLLER, HANS-JURGEN MÖLLER Department of Psychiatry, University of Munich, GermanySearch for more papers by this authorSHIV GAUTAM, SHIV GAUTAM Psychiatric Centre, Medical College, Jaipur, IndiaSearch for more papers by this authorJOHAN DETRAUX, JOHAN DETRAUX University Psychiatric Center, Catholic University Leuven, Leuvensesteenweg 517, 3070 Kortenberg, BelgiumSearch for more papers by this authorCHRISTOPH U. CORRELL, CHRISTOPH U. CORRELL Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY, USASearch for more papers by this author First published: 12 March 2013 https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2051-5545.2011.tb00036.xCitations: 458AboutSectionsPDF ToolsRequest permissionExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShare Give accessShare full text accessShare full-text accessPlease review our Terms and Conditions of Use and check box below to share full-text version of article.I have read and accept the Wiley Online Library Terms and Conditions of UseShareable LinkUse the link below to share a full-text version of this article with your friends and colleagues. Learn more.Copy URL Share a linkShare onFacebookTwitterLinked InRedditWechat As outlined in the first part of this bi-partite publication 1, individuals with severe mental illness (SMI) are at an increased risk for a large number of physical disorders that require clinical attention. People with SMI are entitled to the same standards of care as the rest of the population. However, rates of undiagnosed and untreated medical illnesses are higher in SMI individuals, compared to the general population. Despite the fact that the higher morbidity and mortality of physical illnesses in SMI patients are largely due to modifiable lifestyle risk factors 1, there is sufficient evidence that disparities not only in health care access and utilization, but also in health care provision, contribute to these poor physical health outcomes 2,3. According to one recent study, people with psychotic disorders, bipolar disorder, or major depressive disorder have greatly increased odds of reporting difficulties in accessing care (odds ratios, OR=2.5–7.0) 4. Although parity in access to and provision of health care should be conceived as a basic human right, a confluence of patient, provider, treatment and system factors has created a situation in which access to and quality of health care is problematic for individuals with SMI 5. Table 1 summarizes the barriers to the recognition and management of somatic illnesses in SMI patients. Table 1. Barriers to the recognition and management of physical diseases in patients with severe mental illness (SMI) Patient and illness-related factors Treatment-related factors Psychiatrist-related factors Other physician-related factors Service-related factors Not seeking adequate physical care due to symptoms of the SMI Deleterious impact (e.g., obesity, type 2 DM, CVD, Tendency to focus on mental rather than physical health 15 Stigmatization of people with mental disorders 7,13,17,21 Financial barriers, especially in developing countries 16, paucity (e.g., cognitive impairment, social isolation and suspicion) 13 hyperprolactineamia, xerostomia) of psychotropic medication on physical health 14 with infrequent baseline and subsequent physical examination of patients 13 Physical complaints regarded as psychosomatic symptoms 2 of funding in some countries of general somatic care for patients with SMI 7 Difficulty comprehending health Poor communication with patient or primary Suboptimal and worse quality of care offered High cost of (integrated) care 19 care advice and/or carrying out required care health workers 15 by clinicians to patients with SMI 7,17,33,34,35,36,37,38. Lack of access to health care changes in lifestyle due to psychiatric symptoms and adverse consequences related Physical complaints regarded as psychosomatic symptoms 2 Lack of assessment, monitoring and continuity of care of the physical health 17,19,22,23 Lack of clarity and consensus about who should be responsible for to mental illness (e.g., low educational Suboptimal and worse quality of care offered status of people with SMI 2,14,39,40,41 detecting and managing physical attainment, reduced social networks, lack by clinicians to patients with SMI 7,17,32,33,34,35,36,37,38. Unequipped or underfunded teams to problems in patients with SMI 2,7,14 of employment and family support, poverty, poor housing) 12,14,17,18 Lack of assessment, monitoring and continuity of care of the physical health handle behavioural and emotional problems of patients with SMI 46 Fragmentation or separation of the medical and mental health systems of care, Severity of mental illness (SMI patients status of people with SMI 2,14,39,40,41 Complexity and time intensity of lack of integrated services 2,7,17,29 have fewer medical visits, with the most severely ill patients making the fewest visits) 20 Guidelines perceived as a threat to autonomy, not well known or not clinically accepted 43 coordinating both medical and psychiatric medications 17 Under-resourcing of mental health care that provides little opportunity for specialists to focus on Health risk factors and lifestyle factors (e.g., substance abuse, poor Lack of knowledge regarding medical issues 47 issues outside their core specialty 2 Lack of health insurance coverage 7,17 diet, smoking, lack of exercise and unsafe sexual practices) 2,20,24,25 Erroneous beliefs (SMI patients are not able to adopt healthy lifestyles, weight gain is mainly Less compliant with treatment 26,27,28 adverse effect of medications, lower Unawareness of physical problems due to cognitive deficits cardiac risk medications are less effective) 45 30,31 or to a reduced pain sensitivity associated with AP medication 30,31 Unequipped or underfunded teams to handle behavioural and emotional problems of patients with SMI 46 Migrant status and/or cultural and ethnic diversity 42 Lack of social skills 13 and difficulties communicating physical needs 44 DM — diabetes mellitus; CVD — cardiovascular disease; AP — antipsychotic In many cases, the SMI patients’ only contact with the health service is through the mental health care team. Moreover, because of their SMI, these patients are less capable than other patients of interpreting physical signs, as well as solving their problems and caring for themselves, which places an increased responsibility on the part of mental care workers to be in the fore front for the physical health care of these patients 6. Two consensus conferences have called on mental health care providers to take responsibility for the physical health of their patients 7,8. However, despite data suggesting that the sensitization of psychiatrists to expand their tasks to include assessments of both mental and physical health in SMI patients can be improved by consensus guidelines 9, many psychiatrists still consider their primary or, even, sole function to provide clinical care in terms of psychiatric symptom control and are reluctant to monitor physical health 6. Although many barriers can be related to the patient and his/her illness, and/or to the clinician and his/her medical treatment, the reintegration of psychiatric care and general somatic services, with an ultimate goal of providing optimal services to this vulnerable patient population, seems to represent one of the most important challenges for psychiatric care today 7,10. However, this is only one part of the broader picture: 37% of 195 countries in the world do not even have a specified budget for mental health, and 25% of the countries (of the 101 countries that reported their mental health budget) spend less than 1% of their total health care budget on mental health 11. In some parts of the world, mental health resources are even poorer. In Africa and in the Western Pacific Regions, a mental health policy was found to be present in only half of the countries 12. Moreover, in developing as well as in developed countries, stigmatization, discrimination, erroneous beliefs and negative attitudes associated with SMI will have to be eliminated to achieve parity in health care access and provision. Due to differences between regions and countries (e.g., level of economic development, budgeting of health care, availability of mental health care personnel, etc.), the majority of actions should be adapted to the local needs and circumstances 7. MONITORING AND TREATMENT GUIDELINES The excess mortality rates in persons with SMI are largely due to modifiable health risk factors 1. Therefore, the monitoring and treatment of these factors should be a part of clinical routine care of the psychiatrist. Furthermore, to address the problem of suboptimal medical treatment for patients with SMI, changes need to be made in the health care system and delivery 48, wherein the psychiatrist, once again, can and should play a pivotal role. Monitoring Physical health checks should focus on monitoring 49,50,51: - weight gain and obesity (body mass index, BMI; waist circumference, WC); - blood pressure; - dietary intake; - activity level and exercise; - use of tobacco and alcohol or other substances; - fasting blood levels of glucose; - fasting blood levels of lipids, especially triglycerides and high-density lipoprotein (HDL)-cholesterol; - prolactin levels (if indicated by reproductive system and/or sexual symptoms); - cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk and electrocardiographic (ECG) parameters; - dental health; - liver function tests, blood count, thyroid hormone, electrolytes (periodically, as indicated). Many of these physical health monitoring tests are simple, easy to perform and inexpensive 6,52,53,54, and therefore can/should be implemented in the health care systems of developed as well as developing countries. Moreover, even in developing countries, several of these simple and inexpensive measurements (e.g., body weight and blood pressure) can be routinely done by health workers other than doctors. Screening and assessment of physical health should begin with the patient's personal and family history, covering 40: diabetes mellitus (DM), hypertension, CVD (myocardial infarction or cerebrovascular accident, including age at onset), smoking, diet, physical activity. Secondly, as the individual components of the metabolic syndrome (MetS) (see 1) are critical in predicting the morbidity and mortality of CVD, DM, cancer and other related diseases, these, as well as some other non-metabolic parameters, should be checked at baseline and measured regularly thereafter 46,51. Concerning metabolic parameters, one should remember that drug-naïve, first-episode patients, as well as children and adolescents with psychotic disorders, are at higher risk for metabolic side effects of medications 55,56. Higher baseline values of weight and visceral fat distribution, as well as laboratory evidence of impaired glucose and lipid metabolism, have been, although not consistently, reported for these patients 57. Likewise, young drug-naïve patients of non-Caucasian ethnicity with a personal or family history of metabolic risk factors are more likely to develop metabolic side effects 57. Abdominal obesity Psychiatrists should, regardless of the medication prescribed, monitor and chart BMI and WC of every patient with SMI at every visit, and should encourage patients to monitor and chart their own weight 58. WC seems to be a more useful measurement than BMI. Prospective data in patients with impaired glucose tolerance revealed that central adiposity, having a strong correlation with insulin resistance 59, better predicted future type 2 DM than BMI 60. WC is also a stronger indicator than BMI for systolic blood pressure, HDL-cholesterol, or triglycerides 61, and has been proposed as the best single measure to identify individuals at high risk for CVD and the MetS 52. It is also a simple tool to assess the likelihood of insulin resistance: in one study, a WC <100 cm excluded insulin resistance in 98% of males and 94% of females 61. This assessment can easily be done with a simple and inexpensive waist tape measure. The International Diabetes Federation (IDF) definition (see 1) provides sex- and race-specific criteria for defining elevated WC to identify people with central obesity, thus adapting this criterion to make it also applicable to non-Caucasian populations. However, multiple studies found that WC is rarely measured 62,63,64. The other MetS criteria of blood pressure, fasting plasma glucose and fasting lipid profile should also be assessed, even if WC is normal. As the MetS components seem to cluster, the presence of one component often suggests the presence of the others. Blood pressure High blood pressure in SMI patients is often missed 65. As the cost for measuring blood pressure is low, and hypertension is a relevant CVD risk factor, blood pressure can/ought to be assessed routinely, even at every visit. Hypertension can be defined as a systolic blood pressure $130 mm Hg or a diastolic blood pressure $85 mm Hg 66. This diagnosis requires at least two separate, independent measurements that fall both within the range of hypertension 65. Individuals with a systolic blood pressure of 120 to 130 mm Hg or a diastolic blood pressure of 80 to 85 mm Hg should be considered as pre-hypertensive and require lifestyle modifications to prevent heart disease 67. Fasting blood glucose and lipid levels A baseline measure of plasma glucose level should be collected for all patients before starting treatment 58. In patients starting antipsychotic (AP) treatment, finger prick tests should be carried out at baseline, 6 and 12 weeks to capture early cases of hyperglycemia and then, at minimum, yearly. Formal laboratory screening tests can then be carried out when necessary 68. Ideally, blood glucose measurement should be conducted in the fasting state, because this is the most sensitive measurement for the detection of developing glucose abnormalities. However, this can prove problematic to achieve. In cases where patients present non-fasting, it is preferable to conduct a random blood glucose test (and/or hemoglobin A1C test), rather than to miss the opportunity to screen 6. An abnormal test value (fasting plasma glucose ≥126 mg/dl or hemoglobin A1C value ≥6.5%) 69 suggests the possibility of DM. Fasting plasma glucose levels between 100 and 125 mg/dl (or hemoglobin A1C values of 5.7–6.4%) are indicative of pre-diabetes and should also prompt closer assessment and follow-up. However, the possibility of false positive results need to be excluded by at least one repeated measurement of fasting plasma glucose. If the abnormality is confirmed, the frequency of fasting plasma glucose measurements needs to be increased to 4 times a year to assess the speed of the rise. Likewise, if fasting plasma glucose levels are ≥126 mg/dl or hemoglobin A1C values are >6.4%, the possibility of false positive results needs to be excluded by at least one repeated measurement of fasting plasma glucose. If the second measurement confirms the abnormality, this should lead to a consultation with an internist or other primary health care provider for further assessment and, possibly, treatment. Importantly, hemoglobin A1C reflects the mean glucose levels during the past 3 months. This is excellent as a goal for treatment outcome, but probably not sensitive enough to detect hyperglycaemia in its early stages 70. Patients who have significant risk factors for DM (family history, BMI ≥25, WC above critical values, gestational diabetes, minority ethnicity) should have their fasting plasma glucose level or hemoglobin A1C value monitored at the same time points as other patients starting medication (baseline, week 6 and 12), but thereafter they need to be checked more frequently (approximately every 3–6 months). Patients who are gaining 7% or more of their baseline weight should also have their fasting plasma glucose level or hemoglobin A1C value monitored more frequently, for example, every 4 months 58. Because of its high mortality, special attention should be given to diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA). DKA signs and symptoms often develop quickly, sometimes within 24 hours. One may notice: polyuria and polydipsia, nausea and vomiting, abdominal pain, poor appetite, unintended weight loss, fatigue, Kussmaul respirations (a pattern of deep breathing and hyperventilation in response to metabolic acidosis), fruity-scented breath, somnolence and confusion. The presentation of a patient with DKA varies substantially depending on the severity of the episode (e.g., mild or moderately ill patients may only describe vague symptoms of fatigue, lethargy, poor appetite, or headache). In type 2 DM, polyuria and polydipsia may have been building for weeks to months. More specific signs of DKA, which can be detected through laboratory tests, include: blood glucose level >250 mg/dL, pH <7.3 and a moderate degree of ketonemia or ketonuria 71,72,73,74. Lipid parameters (especially triglycerides and HDL-cholesterol) should also be assessed at baseline and at 3 months, with 12-monthly assessments thereafter. More frequent screening is unnecessary, unless in case of abnormal values. Abnormal values for total cholesterol are >190 mg/dl for patients without DM and >175 mg/dl for patients with DM. Abnormal low-density lipoprotein (LDL)-cholesterol values for patients without and with DM are >115 mg/dl and >100 mg/dl, respectively 65. However, the cost and lack of availability of this assessment may not make it feasible as a routine measure in all settings and patients. CVD risk and ECG parameters The patient's individual CVD risk should be calculated from his/her age, sex, presence or absence of DM, smoking habit, systolic blood pressure and total cholesterol, or the ratio of total cholesterol to HDL-cholesterol with reference to published guidelines, local protocols or online risk calculators. These measurements are relatively simple and easily accessible 54. In the psychiatric setting, it is often difficult to obtain an ECG as rapidly as in other acute medical settings. In less well economically developed countries, obtaining an ECG may be even more problematic. In these cases, whatever psychotropic a psychiatrist is intending to prescribe, patients should be asked about heart risks, such as family history of early cardiac death (i.e, <50 years in males and <55 years in females), personal history of a heart murmur, previous prescription of cardiac medications or anti-hypertensives, or if he/she has ever had an episode of simple syncope 51. Nevertheless, the measurement of ECG parameters as a baseline requirement deserves serious consideration. We propose that the ECG monitoring of patients with SMI has to be seen as a desired baseline parameter in order to assess the overall cardiac health status. As a general rule, we recommend that every patient should have an ECG measurement prior to the initiation of medication. Thereafter, depending on the advice given by a cardiologist, ECG monitoring can be repeated. A baseline ECG assessment is especially important in patients with clinical risk factors for arrhythmias, i.e., those with a family history of early cardiac death, personal history of a heart murmur, hypertension or diabetes, tachycardia at rest, irregular heart beats and fainting spells, particularly upon exertion. Prolactin measurement If possible, to have a reference value, prolactin levels should be measured in all patients at baseline. If too expensive, prolactin levels should only be measured in case sexual or reproductive system abnormalities are reported. Yet, these need to be asked about directly and monitored. Reproductive system abnormalities triggering prolactin level measurement include amenorrhea or oligomenorrhea (i.e, <9 periods per year), galactorrhea, gynecomastia in males, and/or breast tenderness and pain in females. Sexual dysfunction that should prompt prolactin measurement include new symptoms and/or those that coincided with antipsychotic treatment or dose change, including decreased libido, erectile or ejaculatory dysfunction, problems with arousal or orgasm. In these cases, prolactin should be measured every 3 months, especially when increasing the dose of known prolactin-elevating compounds. Although the clinician needs to be aware that laboratory ranges may differ between sites 75,76, in most laboratories normal prolactin values are set at 20 ng/ml (424 mIU/mL) for men and 25 ng/ml (530 mIU/L) for women 77. A complicating factor during measurement of prolactin levels is the presence of macroprolactin, which is essentially biologically inactive, but may lead to falsely high prolactin levels as measured by many assays 78. Conservative estimates suggest that the presence of macroprolactin leads to misdiagnosis in as many as 10% of all reported instances of biochemical hyperprolactinemia 79. In cases where measured prolactin is significantly raised, reporting of estimated monomeric prolactin instead of just “macroprolactin positive” can avoid unnecessary investigations. With antipsychotic treatment, prolactin levels below 200 ng/ml and, mostly, below 100 ng/ml are most commonly observed. To date, the physiological relevance of these levels is unknown, unless hypogonadism (i.e., a state of markedly reduced sex hormone production) is the result, which has been associated with osteoporosis and fracture risk. The risk for breast cancer is much less clear. What seems to be certain is that any prolactin level that leads to hypogonadism should prompt a treatment change to a less prolactin elevating antipsychotic (e.g., quetiapine, aripiprazole or, in refractory patients, clozapine). Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the sella turcica to rule out a prolactinoma should only be ordered after other reasons for prolactin elevation are excluded (e.g., chronic renal failure by assessing creatinine, hypothyroidism by assessing thyroid stimulating hormone, and pregnancy or oral contraception), if prolactin levels are above 200 ng/ml and do not decrease after a change to a lower risk agent, or if lateral visual deficits are observed, raising the suspicion of a prolactinoma 80. Oral health Although currently considered by many clinicians as not important, oral health needs to be scrutinized in the same way as other physical health problems 81,82. Risk factors for a poor oral health (e.g., smoking, medication side effects) and individual oral care needs should be assessed 83. How and when to screen Physical screening and monitoring programs are well accepted by patients and can be implemented in a variety of settings. Contrary to general belief, it is not difficult to motivate most patients to take part in the fasting blood assessments, and most are keen to getting and discussing the results of the evaluations 53,54. Screening patients using an algorithm 84, monitoring form 85 or risk chart 65,86 is a simpler option than using the more complex and detailed guidelines previously published. Although, over recent years, both national and international groups have developed screening and monitoring guidelines 58,84,87,88,89,90,91,92,93,94,95, these seem not to be routinely implemented in the clinical care of patients 62,64,96,97. Follow-up monitoring should be done at appropriate intervals 98 (Table 2). Physical health assessments should be recorded on charts showing the times and results of the assessments compared with reference ranges 54. During initial phases of treatment, it is important to measure weight weekly to identify patients who gain weight rapidly. Waterreus and Laugharne 84 advocate screening of all patients on any medication at baseline (to identify high-risk individuals and to ensure early detection of changes in metabolic parameters), and, at the minimum, every 3 months. Other guidelines propose screening and monitoring at baseline, 3 months, 12 months and annually, unless patients gain at least 7% of baseline body weight or are at increased risk for adverse health outcomes (e.g., family history of DM or early cardiac death, personal history of overweight or obesity, gestational DM, minority ethnicity, etc.). Table 2. Routine measurements for use in monitoring and evaluation of physical health in SMI patients with normal baseline values (according to 64,65 and 88) Baseline 6 weeks 3 months At least at 12 months and annually thereafter Personal and family history X Smoking, exercise, dietary habits X X X X Weight (body mass index) X X X X Waist circumference X X X X Blood pressure X X X X Fasting plasma glucose X Xa X X Fasting lipid profile X X X ECG parameters X Prolactin X X X Dental health X X aThis early blood sugar assessment to rule out precipitous diabetes onset has been recommended in Europe, but not in the US; bif possible to have some reference values, or, if this is too expensive, only in case sexual or reproductive system abnormalities are reported; conly in case of sexual dysfunction that coincided with antipsychotic treatment or dose change If the patient has central obesity, hypertensive blood pressure (≥130/85 mm Hg), pre-diabetes (fasting plasma glucose =100–125 mg/dL or hemoglobin A1C =5.7–6.4%) or DM (fasting plasma glucose ≥126 mg/dL or hemoglobin A1C >6.4%), or marked dyslipidemia (total cholesterol >350 mg/dL; LDL-cholesterol >160 mg/dL; triglycerides >300 mg/dL), he/she should be referred to primary care provider to treat these conditions, unless simple healthy lifestyle guidance or behavioural adjustment and/or switching to a lower cardiometabolic risk medication can address these medical conditions adequately 17,99. Treatment Many, but not all, individuals with SMI either are unaware of the need to change or do not possess the knowledge and skills required to make lifestyle changes. Psychiatrists, physicians, nurses and other members of the multidisciplinary team can help educate and motivate people with SMI to address their lifestyle, including smoking, diet and exercise, t