The sphingolipid ceramide negatively regulates insulin action by inhibiting Akt/protein kinase B (PKB), a serine/threonine kinase that is a central regulator of glucose uptake and anabolic metabolism. Despite considerable attention, the molecular mechanism accounting for this action of ceramide has remained both elusive and controversial. Herein we utilized deletion constructs encoding two different functional domains of Akt/PKB to identify which region of the enzyme conferred responsiveness to ceramide. Surprisingly the findings obtained with these separate domains reveal that ceramide blocks insulin stimulation of Akt/PKB by two independent mechanisms. First, using the isolated pleckstrin homology domain, we found that ceramide specifically blocks the translocation of Akt/PKB, but not its upstream activator phosphoinositide-dependent kinase-1, to the plasma membrane. Second, using a construct lacking this pleckstrin homology domain, which does not require translocation for activation, we found that ceramide stimulates the dephosphorylation of Akt/PKB by protein phosphatase 2A. Collectively these findings identify at least two independent mechanisms by which excessive ceramide accumulation in peripheral tissues could contribute to the development of insulin resistance. Moreover the results obtained provide a unifying theory to account for the numerous dissenting reports investigating the actions of ceramide toward Akt/PKB. The sphingolipid ceramide negatively regulates insulin action by inhibiting Akt/protein kinase B (PKB), a serine/threonine kinase that is a central regulator of glucose uptake and anabolic metabolism. Despite considerable attention, the molecular mechanism accounting for this action of ceramide has remained both elusive and controversial. Herein we utilized deletion constructs encoding two different functional domains of Akt/PKB to identify which region of the enzyme conferred responsiveness to ceramide. Surprisingly the findings obtained with these separate domains reveal that ceramide blocks insulin stimulation of Akt/PKB by two independent mechanisms. First, using the isolated pleckstrin homology domain, we found that ceramide specifically blocks the translocation of Akt/PKB, but not its upstream activator phosphoinositide-dependent kinase-1, to the plasma membrane. Second, using a construct lacking this pleckstrin homology domain, which does not require translocation for activation, we found that ceramide stimulates the dephosphorylation of Akt/PKB by protein phosphatase 2A. Collectively these findings identify at least two independent mechanisms by which excessive ceramide accumulation in peripheral tissues could contribute to the development of insulin resistance. Moreover the results obtained provide a unifying theory to account for the numerous dissenting reports investigating the actions of ceramide toward Akt/PKB. A strong correlation between intramyocellular lipid levels and the severity of insulin resistance has prompted investigators to hypothesize that insulin resistance results from the ectopic accumulation of fat in tissues other than adipose (1Schmitz-Peiffer C. Cell. Signal. 2000; 12: 583-594Crossref PubMed Scopus (217) Google Scholar, 2McGarry J.D. Diabetes. 2002; 51: 7-18Crossref PubMed Scopus (1210) Google Scholar). Specifically, many researchers have speculated that increased availability of lipids to peripheral tissues causes insulin resistance by promoting the accumulation of fat-derived metabolites capable of inhibiting insulin action (1Schmitz-Peiffer C. Cell. Signal. 2000; 12: 583-594Crossref PubMed Scopus (217) Google Scholar, 2McGarry J.D. Diabetes. 2002; 51: 7-18Crossref PubMed Scopus (1210) Google Scholar). Numerous recent studies support the hypothesis that the aberrant deposition of the sphingolipid ceramide in skeletal muscle and liver contributes to the development of insulin resistance resulting from lipid oversupply. First, insulin resistant rodents (3Turinsky J. O'Sullivan D.M. Bayly B.P. J. Biol. Chem. 1990; 265: 16880-16885Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Google Scholar, 4Kim J.K. Fillmore J.J. Chen Y. Yu C. Moore I.K. Pypaert M. Lutz E.P. Kako Y. Velez-Carrasco W. Goldberg I.J. Breslow J.L. Shulman G.I. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 2001; 98: 7522-7527Crossref PubMed Scopus (585) Google Scholar) and humans (5Straczkowski M. Kowalska I. Nikolajuk A. Dzienis-Straczkowska S. Kinalska I. Baranowski M. Zendzian-Piotrowska M. Brzezinska Z. Gorski J. Diabetes. 2004; 53: 1215-1221Crossref PubMed Scopus (202) Google Scholar, 6Adams II, J.M. Pratipanawatr T. Berria R. Wang E. DeFronzo R.A. Sullards M.C. Mandarino L.J. Diabetes. 2004; 53: 25-31Crossref PubMed Scopus (515) Google Scholar) have elevated ceramide levels in their peripheral tissues. Second, exercise training insulin-resistant rodents markedly improves their insulin sensitivity while substantially lowering intramuscular ceramide levels (7Dobrzyn A. Gorski J. Am. J. Physiol. 2002; 282: E277-E285Crossref PubMed Scopus (94) Google Scholar). Third, ceramide analogs or agents that induce endogenous ceramide accumulation inhibit insulin signaling and insulin-stimulated glycogen synthesis and glucose uptake (8Chavez J.A. Summers S.A. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 2003; 419: 101-109Crossref PubMed Scopus (383) Google Scholar, 9Chavez J.A. Knotts T.A. Wang L.P. Li G. Dobrowsky R.T. Florant G.L. Summers S.A. J. Biol. Chem. 2003; 278: 10297-10303Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (473) Google Scholar, 10Summers S.A. Garza L.A. Zhou H. Birnbaum M.J. Mol. Cell. Biol. 1998; 18: 5457-5464Crossref PubMed Scopus (362) Google Scholar, 11Kanety H. Hemi R. Papa M.Z. Karasik A. J. Biol. Chem. 1996; 271: 9895-9897Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (147) Google Scholar, 12Schmitz-Peiffer C. Craig D.L. Bidn T.J. J. Biol. Chem. 1999; 274: 24202-24210Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (494) Google Scholar, 13Teruel T. Hernandez R. Lorenzo M. Diabetes. 2001; 50: 2563-2571Crossref PubMed Scopus (198) Google Scholar, 14Hajduch E. Balendran A. Batty I.H. Litherland G.J. Blair A.S. Downes C.P. Hundal H.S. Diabetologia. 2001; 44: 173-183Crossref PubMed Scopus (176) Google Scholar). Fourth, inhibitors of de novo ceramide synthesis prevent the antagonistic effects of saturated fatty acids on insulin signaling in cultured myotubes (9Chavez J.A. Knotts T.A. Wang L.P. Li G. Dobrowsky R.T. Florant G.L. Summers S.A. J. Biol. Chem. 2003; 278: 10297-10303Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (473) Google Scholar). The inhibitory effect of ceramides on insulin signaling result, at least partially, from their ability to block the phosphorylation and activation of Akt/protein kinase B, a serine/threonine kinase that is a central mediator of many insulin effects (10Summers S.A. Garza L.A. Zhou H. Birnbaum M.J. Mol. Cell. Biol. 1998; 18: 5457-5464Crossref PubMed Scopus (362) Google Scholar, 15Zhou H. Summers S.A. Birnbaum M.J. Pittman R.N. J. Biol. Chem. 1998; 273: 16568-16575Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (317) Google Scholar, 16Summers S.A. Whiteman E.L. Birnbaum M.J. Int. J. Obes. Relat. Metab. Disord. 2000; 24: S67-S70Crossref PubMed Scopus (44) Google Scholar). The studies described herein investigated the molecular mechanism(s) by which ceramide inhibits Akt/PKB 1The abbreviations used are: PKB, protein kinase B; PI, phosphatidylinositol; PDK1, phosphoinositide-dependent kinase-1; PH, pleckstrin homology; GFP, green fluorescent protein; HA, hemagglutinin; PI(3,4,5)P3, phosphatidylinositol 3,4,5-trisphosphate; PI(3,4)P2, phosphatidylinositol 3,4-bisphosphate; NBD, 12-(N-methyl-N-(7-nitrobenz-2-oxa-1,3-diazol-4-yl)); WT, wild type; PP, protein phosphatase; OA, okadaic acid.1The abbreviations used are: PKB, protein kinase B; PI, phosphatidylinositol; PDK1, phosphoinositide-dependent kinase-1; PH, pleckstrin homology; GFP, green fluorescent protein; HA, hemagglutinin; PI(3,4,5)P3, phosphatidylinositol 3,4,5-trisphosphate; PI(3,4)P2, phosphatidylinositol 3,4-bisphosphate; NBD, 12-(N-methyl-N-(7-nitrobenz-2-oxa-1,3-diazol-4-yl)); WT, wild type; PP, protein phosphatase; OA, okadaic acid. activation by insulin. Numerous hormones, growth factors, and transforming oncogenes activate Akt/PKB using a redundant signaling pathway triggered by phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase, a lipid kinase that catalyzes production of 3′-phosphoinositides (i.e. phosphatidylinositol 3,4-bisphosphate (PI(3,4)P2) and phosphatidylinositol 3,4,5-trisphosphate (PI(3,4,5)P3) (for reviews, see Refs. 16Summers S.A. Whiteman E.L. Birnbaum M.J. Int. J. Obes. Relat. Metab. Disord. 2000; 24: S67-S70Crossref PubMed Scopus (44) Google Scholar and 17Whiteman E.L. Cho H. Birnbaum M.J. Trends Endocrinol. Metab. 2002; 13: 444-451Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (556) Google Scholar). These unique phospholipids serve as docking sites for cytoplasmic proteins with pleckstrin homology (PH) domains, including the serine/threonine kinases Akt/PKB and phosphoinositide-dependent kinase-1 (PDK1). 3′-Phosphoinositides displace the PH domain of Akt/PKB, exposing regulatory phosphorylation sites in the catalytic/regulatory domain of the enzyme (e.g. Ser-473 and Thr-308 for the Akt1/PKBα isoform). Moreover, by recruiting both Akt/PKB and PDK1 to common membrane domains, the two enzymes come into closer proximity, facilitating the phosphorylation of the Thr-308 residue by PDK1. 3′-Phosphoinositides, through a second mechanism not involving the recruitment of Akt/PKB to the plasma membrane, promote Ser-473 phosphorylation, which is required for subsequent Thr-308 phosphorylation (18Scheid M.P. Woodgett J.R. FEBS Lett. 2003; 546: 108-112Crossref PubMed Scopus (345) Google Scholar, 19Scheid M.P. Marignani P.A. Woodgett J.R. Mol. Cell. Biol. 2002; 22: 6247-6260Crossref PubMed Scopus (270) Google Scholar). The enzyme responsible for phosphorylating the Ser-473 site has not yet been cloned (20Murata H. Hresko R.C. Mueckler M. J. Biol. Chem. 2003; 278: 21607-21614Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (17) Google Scholar, 21Hresko R.C. Murata H. Mueckler M. J. Biol. Chem. 2003; 278: 21615-21622Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (48) Google Scholar). Ceramide levels in various insulin-resistant rodents and humans are approximately twice those of insulin-sensitive controls (3Turinsky J. O'Sullivan D.M. Bayly B.P. J. Biol. Chem. 1990; 265: 16880-16885Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Google Scholar, 4Kim J.K. Fillmore J.J. Chen Y. Yu C. Moore I.K. Pypaert M. Lutz E.P. Kako Y. Velez-Carrasco W. Goldberg I.J. Breslow J.L. Shulman G.I. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 2001; 98: 7522-7527Crossref PubMed Scopus (585) Google Scholar). By using a variety of different treatments to modulate intracellular ceramide levels in either C2C12 myotubes or 3T3-L1 preadipocytes, we have shown that artificially increasing intracellular ceramide 2-fold over basal values blocks activation of Akt/PKB by insulin (8Chavez J.A. Summers S.A. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 2003; 419: 101-109Crossref PubMed Scopus (383) Google Scholar, 9Chavez J.A. Knotts T.A. Wang L.P. Li G. Dobrowsky R.T. Florant G.L. Summers S.A. J. Biol. Chem. 2003; 278: 10297-10303Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (473) Google Scholar, 22Stratford S. DeWald D.B. Summers S.A. Biochem. J. 2001; 354: 359-368Crossref PubMed Scopus (127) Google Scholar). Short-chain ceramide analogs recapitulate the effect of inducing endogenous ceramide accumulation (9Chavez J.A. Knotts T.A. Wang L.P. Li G. Dobrowsky R.T. Florant G.L. Summers S.A. J. Biol. Chem. 2003; 278: 10297-10303Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (473) Google Scholar, 10Summers S.A. Garza L.A. Zhou H. Birnbaum M.J. Mol. Cell. Biol. 1998; 18: 5457-5464Crossref PubMed Scopus (362) Google Scholar, 22Stratford S. DeWald D.B. Summers S.A. Biochem. J. 2001; 354: 359-368Crossref PubMed Scopus (127) Google Scholar). Interestingly in our prior studies we have detected no effects of either induced endogenous ceramide or short-chain ceramide analogs on upstream signaling events, such as the phosphorylation of insulin receptor substrate proteins or the activation of PI 3-kinase (8Chavez J.A. Summers S.A. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 2003; 419: 101-109Crossref PubMed Scopus (383) Google Scholar, 10Summers S.A. Garza L.A. Zhou H. Birnbaum M.J. Mol. Cell. Biol. 1998; 18: 5457-5464Crossref PubMed Scopus (362) Google Scholar, 22Stratford S. DeWald D.B. Summers S.A. Biochem. J. 2001; 354: 359-368Crossref PubMed Scopus (127) Google Scholar). In this study, we sought to understand the mechanisms underlying the inhibitory effect of ceramide by defining the region of Akt/PKB that confers responsiveness to ceramide. Specifically we evaluated effects of ceramide analogs on truncated constructs encoding either (a) the isolated PH domain, which translocates to the plasma membrane following insulin treatment, or (b) the isolated catalytic/regulatory domain, which is phosphorylated and activated in response to insulin via a translocation-independent mechanism. Surprisingly the findings obtained revealed the existence of two independent mechanisms by which ceramide regulates Akt/PKB, each initiated downstream of PI 3-kinase and culminating on a separate domain of Akt/PKB. Antibodies and Reagents—Polyclonal antibodies directed against the phosphorylated forms of mitogen-activated protein kinase and Akt/PKB (Ser-473 site) were from Promega (Madison, WI) and Cell Signaling Technology, Inc. (Beverly, MA), respectively, and those against hemagglutinin were from Santa Cruz Biotechnology, Inc. (Santa Cruz, CA). Secondary anti-rabbit antibodies coupled to Texas Red or horseradish peroxidase were from Jackson Immunoresearch Laboratories (West Grove, PA) or Santa Cruz Biotechnology, Inc., respectively. C2-ceramide and C2-dihydroceramide were from Calbiochem-Novabiochem. Porcine insulin was from Sigma. PI(3,4,5)P3 was from Echelon Biosciences (Salt Lake City, UT). Cell Culture—3T3-L1 preadipocytes were maintained in Dulbecco's modified Eagle's medium supplemented with 10% calf serum. Preadipocytes expressing the Akt/PKB constructs were periodically selected in 800 μg/ml G418 and were described previously (23Summers S.A. Whiteman E.L. Cho H. Lipfert L. Birnbaum M.J. J. Biol. Chem. 1999; 274: 23858-23867Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (55) Google Scholar). Cell Lines and cDNA Constructs—3T3-L1 preadipocytes stably expressing HA-tagged human Akt1/PKBα (HA-Akt/PKB) or Δ4–129-Akt/PKB (Cat/Reg-Akt/PKB) were provided by Richard Roth (Stanford University, Stanford, CA) and were described previously (24Kohn A.D. Kovacina K.S. Roth R.A. EMBO J. 1995; 14: 4288-4295Crossref PubMed Scopus (318) Google Scholar). Sandra Watton and Doreen Cantrell (Imperial Cancer Research Fund, London, UK) provided the PH domain of Akt/PKB coupled to green fluorescent protein (GFP) (25Watton S.J. Downward J. Curr. Biol. 1999; 9: 433-436Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (262) Google Scholar). HA-tagged PDK1 was described previously (26Wick M.J. Dong L.Q. Riojas R.A. Ramos F.J. Liu F. J. Biol. Chem. 2000; 275: 40400-40406Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (115) Google Scholar). The GFP-tagged catalytic domain of Akt/PKB (amino acids 126–480) was generated by PCR using a forward primer (GGGAGATCTAGTGACAACTCAGGGGCTGAAG), which inserted a BglII restriction site, and a reverse primer 3′ primer (GGGGAATTCTCAGGCTGTCGGACTGGC), which inserted an EcoRI restriction site after the stop codon. The PCR fragment was obtained using full-length GFP-Akt as a template, and the PCR product obtained was cloned into the pGEM TA cloning vector (Promega), digested with BglII and EcoRI, and subcloned into the pEGFP vector (Clontech). Analysis of Akt/PKB Translocation by Confocal Microscopy—3T3-L1 preadipocytes at 20–30% confluency on coverslips were transfected with 10 μg of cDNA encoding GFP-Akt-PH, GFP-Cat/Reg-Akt/PKB, or HA-PDK1 using the LipoTAXI mammalian transfection kit (Stratagene, La Jolla, CA). Cells were analyzed by confocal fluorescence microscopy 48 h post-transfection. Digital image processing was performed as described previously using Metamorph software (22Stratford S. DeWald D.B. Summers S.A. Biochem. J. 2001; 354: 359-368Crossref PubMed Scopus (127) Google Scholar). GFP-tagged proteins were visualized directly, while HA-tagged ones were visualized by immunofluorescence with anti-HA antibodies using methods described previously (27Summers S.A. Kao A.W. Kohn A.D. Backus G.S. Roth R.A. Pessin J.E. Birnbaum M.J. J. Biol. Chem. 1999; 274: 17934-17940Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (195) Google Scholar). PI 3-Kinase Assays—PI 3-kinase assays were performed using the method of Wang and Summers (28Wang L.P. Summers S.A. Methods Mol. Med. 2003; 83: 127-136PubMed Google Scholar). Delivery of PI(3,4,5)P3—PI(3,4,5)P3 was delivered using the Shuttle PIP™ kit from Echelon Biosciences. Briefly 3T3-L1 preadipocytes were grown to confluency and serum-starved in Dulbecco's modified Eagle's medium + 0.2% bovine serum albumin for 2 h prior to treatment. Equimolar concentrations of PI(3,4,5)P3 and histone carrier were mixed, sonicated, and incubated at room temperature for 10 min. The mixture was added to cells at a final concentration of 1 μm for 10 min prior to lysis. For selected assays, NBD-labeled PI(3,4,5)P3 was included and visualized by fluorescence microscopy. Immunoblot Analyses of Total Cell Lysates—Cells grown to confluency in 100-mm-diameter dishes were serum-deprived as indicated in the figure legends. Cells were washed twice with ice-cold phosphate-buffered saline and lysed in 100 μl of 66 mm Tris (pH 8.0) containing 2% SDS and 100 mm vanadate. Samples were boiled for 2 min, and DNA was sheared by passing extracts through a 27-gauge needle several times. Insoluble material was pelleted by centrifuging the samples for 30 min at 20,000 × g. Protein concentrations were determined using the bicinchoninic protein assay kit from Pierce, and 40 μg of total protein were loaded into each well of a 7.5% or 10% polyacrylamide gel. Proteins were transferred to nitrocellulose and probed with the indicated antibodies as described previously (29Summers S.A. Lipfert L. Birnbaum Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 1998; 246: 76-81Crossref PubMed Scopus (49) Google Scholar). Antibody detection was performed using the enhanced chemiluminescence kit from Amersham Biosciences. PDK1 Kinase Assay—3T3-L1 preadipocytes were grown to 50% confluency and transfected with pBEX-PDK1 using calcium phosphate. Cells were serum-deprived in Dulbecco's modified Eagle's medium and 0.2% bovine serum albumin for 2 h and treated with or without insulin and/or C2-ceramide. Cells were lysed in 1 ml of lysis buffer (150 mm NaCl, 25 mm Tris-HCl, 1 mm EDTA, 0.2 mm EGTA, 5 mm MgCl2, 1 mm dithiothreitol, 10% glycerol, 2% Igepal, 1 mm phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride, 50 IU/ml aprotinin, 2 μg/ml leupeptin), incubated on ice for 15 min, and then centrifuged for 10 min. The supernatant (900 μl) was transferred to new tubes and rocked with 8 μl of rabbit anti-HA antibodies for 1 h at 4 °C. Thirty microliters of Protein A-agarose beads were washed in lysis buffer, centrifuged, and incubated with the supernatant for 1 h at 4 °C. Samples were then washed three times with lysis buffer, twice more with kinase buffer (50 mm Hepes, 10 mm MgCl2, 2 mm MnCl2, 0.2 mm dithiothreitol), and resuspended in kinase buffer. Sphingosine (1 mm) and C2-ceramide (1 mm) were prepared as stock solutions in kinase buffer containing 4 mg/ml bovine serum albumin and were added at a final concentration of 100 μm.[32P]ATP (5 μCi) was added to each sample in 200 μm ATP + Mg2+. The final volume for the reaction was 50 μl. Samples were incubated at 30 °C for 30 min, and the reaction was stopped by the addition of 50 μl of sample buffer. Proteins were resolved by SDS-PAGE, transferred to nitrocellulose, and visualized on a Storm PhosphorImager. Ceramide Blocks the Effects of Insulin on Both the PH Domain and the Catalytic/Regulatory Domain of Akt/PKB—Akt/PKB is comprised of an amino-terminal pleckstrin homology domain followed by a carboxyl-terminal catalytic/regulatory domain (31Datta K. Franke T.F. Chan T.O. Makris A. Yang S.I. Kaplan D.R. Morrison D.K. Golemis E.A. Tsichlis P.N. Mol. Cell. Biol. 1995; 15: 2304-2310Crossref PubMed Scopus (156) Google Scholar). As described earlier, Akt/PKB translocates to the plasma membrane in insulin-stimulated cells because of high affinity interactions between its PH domain and insulin-generated 3′-phosphoinositides (32Kavran J.M. Klein D.E. Lee A. Falasca M. Isakoff S.J. Skolnik E.Y. Lemmon M.A. J. Biol. Chem. 1998; 273: 30497-30508Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (377) Google Scholar). The 3′-phosphoinositides displace the PH domain of Akt/PKB, exposing two regulatory phosphorylation sites within the catalytic/regulatory domain (17Whiteman E.L. Cho H. Birnbaum M.J. Trends Endocrinol. Metab. 2002; 13: 444-451Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (556) Google Scholar). To determine whether ceramide blocked the insulin-stimulated recruitment of Akt/PKB to the plasma membrane, we assessed the effects of a short-chain ceramide analog (C2-ceramide) on the subcellular distribution of Akt/PKB constructs tagged with GFP. Within minutes, insulin stimulated the translocation of either a full-length Akt/PKB construct (wild type, WT-Akt/PKB) or a truncated one encoding only the PH domain (PH-Akt/PKB). Pretreating with C2-ceramide completely blocked this insulin-stimulated movement of either construct (Fig. 1). Removal of the PH domain (Cat/Reg-Akt/PKB) rendered Akt/PKB incapable of translocating to the plasma membrane, and its subcellular distribution was unaltered by C2-ceramide (Fig. 1). Interestingly Roth and colleagues (33Kohn A.D. Takeuchi F. Roth R.A. J. Biol. Chem. 1996; 271: 21920-21926Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (407) Google Scholar) have demonstrated previously that, through a PI 3-kinase-dependent mechanism, insulin activates Cat/Reg-Akt/PKB by stimulating its phosphorylation on two sites. Presumably removal of the PH domain eliminates the need for membrane localization as the domain no longer blocks accessibility to the regulatory residues. However, activation of the enzyme still requires PI 3-kinase as Ser-473 phosphorylation occurs through a separable PI 3-kinase-dependent pathway (18Scheid M.P. Woodgett J.R. FEBS Lett. 2003; 546: 108-112Crossref PubMed Scopus (345) Google Scholar, 19Scheid M.P. Marignani P.A. Woodgett J.R. Mol. Cell. Biol. 2002; 22: 6247-6260Crossref PubMed Scopus (270) Google Scholar). Reasoning that this construct would be insensitive to the inhibitory effects of ceramide, we determined whether C2-ceramide blocked the phosphorylation and activation of Cat/Reg-Akt/PKB. Surprisingly C2-ceramide completely inhibited the insulin-stimulated phosphorylation and activation of Cat/Reg-Akt/PKB (Fig. 2). Specifically we were able to simultaneously assess the phosphorylation state of both endogenous Akt/PKB and Cat/Reg-Akt/PKB in 3T3-L1 preadipocytes stably expressing the deletion construct. Using antibodies that recognize the Ser-473 phosphorylation site, we found that C2-ceramide blocks phosphorylation of both endogenous Akt/PKB and Cat/Reg-Akt/PKB comparably (Fig. 2A). We additionally measured the kinase activity of the immunoisolated Cat/Reg-Akt/PKB construct and found that ceramide completely ablated the insulin-stimulated increase in enzymatic activity (Fig. 2B). Ceramide Does Not Inhibit Upstream Signaling Events—The observation that ceramide inhibits distinct domains on Akt/PKB suggested that the effects of sphingolipid were the result of an inhibition of upstream signaling events. Moreover researchers have used labeled PH domains as a means of measuring 3-phosphoinositide generation in vivo (34Whiteman E.L. Chen J.J. Birnbaum M.J. Endocrinology. 2003; 144: 3811-3820Crossref PubMed Scopus (40) Google Scholar, 35Gray A. Van Der Kaay J. Downes C.P. Biochem. J. 1999; 344: 929-936Crossref PubMed Scopus (181) Google Scholar), suggesting that C2-ceramide was probably blocking the activation of PI 3-kinase or the accumulation of PI(3,4)P2 or PI(3,4,5)P3. Although others and we have demonstrated that C2-ceramide has no effect on PI 3-kinase in NIH-3T3 fibroblasts or 3T3-L1 adipocytes (9Chavez J.A. Knotts T.A. Wang L.P. Li G. Dobrowsky R.T. Florant G.L. Summers S.A. J. Biol. Chem. 2003; 278: 10297-10303Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (473) Google Scholar, 10Summers S.A. Garza L.A. Zhou H. Birnbaum M.J. Mol. Cell. Biol. 1998; 18: 5457-5464Crossref PubMed Scopus (362) Google Scholar, 13Teruel T. Hernandez R. Lorenzo M. Diabetes. 2001; 50: 2563-2571Crossref PubMed Scopus (198) Google Scholar, 15Zhou H. Summers S.A. Birnbaum M.J. Pittman R.N. J. Biol. Chem. 1998; 273: 16568-16575Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (317) Google Scholar, 22Stratford S. DeWald D.B. Summers S.A. Biochem. J. 2001; 354: 359-368Crossref PubMed Scopus (127) Google Scholar, 36Zinda M.J. Vlahos C.J. Lai M.T. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 2001; 280: 1107-1115Crossref PubMed Scopus (69) Google Scholar, 37Bourbon N.A. Sandirasegarane L. Kester M. J. Biol. Chem. 2002; 277: 3286-3292Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (207) Google Scholar, 38Salinas M. Lopez-Valdaliso R. Martin D. Alvarez A. Cuadrado A. Mol. Cell. 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Specifically, Shuttle PIP carriers (Echelon Biosciences) were used to deliver PI(3,4,5)P3 into living 3T3-L1 preadipocytes. Fig. 3A demonstrates the subcellular localization of NBD-labeled PI(3,4,5)P3, which did not appear in either the nucleus or plasma membrane but instead localized to large structures present throughout the interior of the cell (Fig. 3A). At concentrations as low as 1 μm, PI(3,4,5)P3 stimulated the phosphorylation of Akt/PKB (Fig. 3B). Interestingly PI(3,4,5)P3 also stimulated the phosphorylation of Cat/Reg-Akt/PKB, confirming the existence of a PI 3-kinase-dependent pathway responsible for Akt/PKB phosphorylation that is independent of the effect on Akt/PKB translocation (42Scheid M.P. Lauener R.W. Duronio V. Biochem. J. 1995; 312: 159-162Crossref PubMed Scopus (114) Google Scholar). C2-ceramide completely blocked Akt/PKB phosphorylation induced by PI(3,4,5)P3, confirming that C2-ceramide regulates Akt/PKB independently of effects on PI 3-kinase. An alternative possibility was that C2-ceramide was promoting 3′-phosphoinositide degradation or altering the ability of 3′-phosphoinositide to effectively signal to all of its target molecules. To confirm that 3′-phosphoinositides were capable of signaling to downstream effectors other than Akt/PKB, we determined whether C2-ceramide altered the translocation of another target of 3′-phosphoinositides, PDK1. To effectively remove PDK1 from the plasma membrane, we treated cells with the PI 3-kinase inhibitor LY294002 ∼16 h before performing the experiment. This treatment effected a redistribution of GFP-tagged PDK1 from the plasma membrane to the cytoplasm. The addition of insulin rapidly stimulated the translocation of PDK1 to the plasma membrane (Fig. 4) via a PI 3-kinase-dependent mechanism (data not shown). C2-ceramide, under conditions that completely blocked Akt/PKB phosphorylation, activation, and translocation, had no effect on the movement of PDK1 (Fig. 4). These data indicate that PI(3,4,5)P3 is produced and functional in these cells, but it is incapable of recruiting and activating Akt/PKB in cells loaded with excess ceramide. Surprisingly Filippa et al. (43Filippa N. Sable C.L. Hemmings B.A. Van Obberghen E. Mol. Cell. Biol. 2000; 20: 5712-5721Crossref PubMed Scopus (112) Google Scholar) reported that the catalytic/regulatory domain of Akt/PKB can interact directly with PDK1, thus negating the need for 3′-phosphoinositides in its translocation. In this prior study, catalytically inactive forms of PDK1, as well as those lacking their PH domains, were incapable of promoting Akt/PKB translocation. Although we were unable to detect any movement of Cat/Reg-Akt to the plasma membrane (Fig. 1), we nonetheless evaluated the effects of ceramide on PDK1 kinase activity as the inhibition of PDK1 activity could account for the effects on Cat/Reg-Akt phosphorylation and activation. C2-ceramide, at concentrations as high as 100 μm, had no effect on the activity of immunoisolated PDK1 (Fig. 4B). Interestingly King et al. (44King C.C. Zenke F.T. Dawson P.E. Dutil E.M. Newton A.C. Hemmings B.A. Bokoch G.M. J. Biol. Chem. 2000; 275: 18108-18113Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (91) Google Scholar) found that sphingosine dramatically stimulates PDK1 activity and have hypothesized that this is important for PDK1 activation by hormonal stimuli. Since C2-ceramide contains a sphingosine backbone, we hypothesized that C2-ceramide might block the sphingosine-induced increase in PDK1 activity. However, although sphingosine potently activated