Lactic acid is a well known metabolic by-product of intense exercise, particularly under anaerobic conditions. Lactate is also a key source of energy and an important metabolic substrate, and it has also been hypothesized to be a signaling molecule directing metabolic activity. Here we show that GPR81, an orphan G-protein-coupled receptor highly expressed in fat, is in fact a sensor for lactate. Lactate activates GPR81 in its physiological concentration range of 1–20 mm and suppresses lipolysis in mouse, rat, and human adipocytes as well as in differentiated 3T3-L1 cells. Adipocytes from GPR81-deficient mice lack an antilipolytic response to lactate but are responsive to other antilipolytic agents. Lactate specifically induces internalization of GPR81 after receptor activation. Site-directed mutagenesis of GPR81 coupled with homology modeling demonstrates that classically conserved key residues in the transmembrane binding domains are responsible for interacting with lactate. Our results indicate that lactate suppresses lipolysis in adipose tissue through a direct activation of GPR81. GPR81 may thus be an attractive target for the treatment of dyslipidemia and other metabolic disorders. Lactic acid is a well known metabolic by-product of intense exercise, particularly under anaerobic conditions. Lactate is also a key source of energy and an important metabolic substrate, and it has also been hypothesized to be a signaling molecule directing metabolic activity. Here we show that GPR81, an orphan G-protein-coupled receptor highly expressed in fat, is in fact a sensor for lactate. Lactate activates GPR81 in its physiological concentration range of 1–20 mm and suppresses lipolysis in mouse, rat, and human adipocytes as well as in differentiated 3T3-L1 cells. Adipocytes from GPR81-deficient mice lack an antilipolytic response to lactate but are responsive to other antilipolytic agents. Lactate specifically induces internalization of GPR81 after receptor activation. Site-directed mutagenesis of GPR81 coupled with homology modeling demonstrates that classically conserved key residues in the transmembrane binding domains are responsible for interacting with lactate. Our results indicate that lactate suppresses lipolysis in adipose tissue through a direct activation of GPR81. GPR81 may thus be an attractive target for the treatment of dyslipidemia and other metabolic disorders. GPR81 (1Lee D.K. Nguyen T. Lynch K.R. Cheng R. Vanti W.B. Arkhitko O. Lewis T. Evans J.F. George S.R. O'Dowd B.F. Gene (Amst.).. 2001; 275: 83-91Google Scholar) is an orphan G-protein-coupled receptor that is highly homologous to GPR109a and GPR109b. GPR109a and GPR109b were recently identified as receptors for niacin (also known as nicotinic acid) (2Tunaru S. Kero J. Schaub A. Wufka C. Blaukat A. Pfeffer K. Offermanns S. Nat. Med... 2003; 9: 352-355Google Scholar, 3Wise A. Foord S.M. Fraser N.J. Barnes A.A. Elshourbagy N. Eilert M. Ignar D.M. Murdock P.R. Steplewski K. Green A. Brown A.J. Dowell S.J. Szekeres P.G. Hassall D.G. Marshall F.H. Wilson S. Pike N.B. J. Biol. Chem... 2003; 278: 9869-9874Google Scholar) and subsequently characterized as receptors for the endogenous ketone body β-hydroxybutyrate (4Taggart A.K. Kero J. Gan X. Cai T.Q. Cheng K. Ippolito M. Ren N. Kaplan R. Wu K. Wu T.J. Jin L. Liaw C. Chen R. Richman J. Connolly D. Offermanns S. Wright S.D. Waters M.G. J. Biol. Chem... 2005; 280: 26649-26652Google Scholar). Niacin has been used clinically for a half-century as an effective treatment for dyslipidemia (5Garg A. Grundy S.M. J. Am. Med. Assoc... 1990; 264: 723-726Google Scholar); however, its utility is somewhat hampered by a target-related effect on dendritic Langerhans cells, which release prostaglandin D2 in response to GPR109a stimulation, resulting in a cutaneous flushing response (6Benyó Z. Gille A. Kero J. Csiky M. Suchánková M.C. Nüsing R.M. Moers A. Pfeffer K. Offermanns S. J. Clin. Invest... 2005; 115: 3634-3640Google Scholar, 7Benyó Z. Gille A. Bennett C.L. Clausen B.E. Offermanns S. Mol. Pharmacol... 2006; 70: 1844-1849Google Scholar, 8Cheng K. Wu T.J. Wu K.K. Sturino C. Metters K. Gottesdiener K. Wright S.D. Wang Z. O'Neill G. Lai E. Waters M.G. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A... 2006; 103: 6682-6687Google Scholar). GPR81 is highly expressed in fat, similar to GPR109a, but is not expressed significantly in spleen; nor is it highly detected in any other tissue, and it has thus been hypothesized to be a potential target for the treatment of dyslipidemia that would be analogous to GPR109a/niacin but without the potential side effects (9Ge H. Weiszmann J. Reagan J.D. Gupte J. Baribault H. Gyuris T. Chen J.L. Tian H. Li Y. J. Lipid Res... 2008; 49: 797-803Google Scholar). In this report, we demonstrate the initial identification of the ligand activity for GPR81 from the rat tissue extracts, the purification of l-lactate from porcine brain as the source of the ligand activity, and the pharmacological characterization of l-lactate as a ligand for GPR81. In addition, we show that in its physiological concentration range, l-lactate effectively inhibits lipolysis in adipocytes from humans, mice, and rats. Adipocytes from GPR81-deficient mice lack responses to l-lactate, indicating that the antilipolytic effect of l-lactate is mediated by GPR81. Despite a long history of being considered as waste or a by-product of metabolism, l-lactate has maintained some attention as a potential signaling molecule (10Sola-Penna M. IUBMB Life.. 2008; 49: 797-803Google Scholar). As early as the 1960s, researchers have demonstrated significant effects of lactate on adipocytes (11Björntorp P. Acta Med. Scand... 1965; 178: 253-255Google Scholar); however, the mechanism by which this occurs has remained unknown. Our finding in this report provides a molecular basis for the ability of lactate to modulate lipolysis in adipocytes and establishes a new target opportunity for the treatment of dyslipidemia. Chemicals—All chemicals tested as ligands for GPR81 were purchased from Sigma. Identification of GPR81 Ligand Activity from Rat Tissues—Different rat tissues (5 g/tissue) were homogenized in cold (–30 °C) 80% ethanol at a tissue/solvent ratio of 1:8. The extracts were centrifuged at 10,000 × g for 30 min. The supernatants were collected, and volumes were reduced using a rotary evaporator at 30 °C. The remaining solution was centrifuged at 10,000 × g for 30 min at 4 °C. The supernatant was then passed through a C-18 Sep-pack column (Bond Elut; Varian), and the flow-through was collected and dried in a lyophilizer. The dried sample was reextracted with pure ethanol, and the supernatant was dried in a rotary evaporator, reconstituted in water, and tested for activation of GTPγS 4The abbreviations used are: GTPγS, guanosine 5′-3-O-(thio)triphosphate; PTX, pertussis toxin; PBS, phosphate-buffered saline; FFA, free fatty acid; ELISA, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay; GPCR, G protein-coupled receptor; DCA, dichloroacetate; RT, reverse transcription; GHB, γ-hydroxybutyric acid; CHO, Chinese hamster ovary. incorporation, as described previously (12Liu C. Eriste E. Sutton S. Chen J. Roland B. Kuei C. Farmer N. Jörnvall H. Sillard R. Lovenberg T.W. J. Biol. Chem... 2003; 278: 50754-50764Google Scholar), in cell membranes expressing the recombinant human GPR81. Purification of GPR81 Ligand from Porcine Brain—To purify the GPR81 ligand from porcine brain, 200 g of frozen porcine brain (Pel-Freez Biologicals) were homogenized under similar conditions as the rat tissues. The extract was centrifuged, the supernatant was collected, and the volume was reduced on a Rotovap at 30 °C to about 200 ml. The sample was centrifuged at 10,000 × g for 30 min, and the supernatant was loaded onto a C-18 Sep-pack column from Varian. The flow-through was dried in a lyophilizer and dissolved in 2 ml of distilled water. The sample was adjusted to pH 3 with concentrated HCl before loading to a Restek AllureOA column (300 × 10 mm, 5 μm, 60 Å). Preparative HPLC was run on a Waters Alliance 2790 system (flow rate 4 ml/min; mobile phases: 1 mm HCl in water (A) and acetonitrile (B); gradient: 0–10 min, 100% A). Fractions were collected and neutralized with NaOH before being tested in a GTPγS binding assay to identify the active fraction. The active fraction was lyophilized and dissolved in 0.5 ml of D2O. The pH of the sample was adjusted to 8 with NaOH, and NMR data were acquired on a Bruker DRX600 spectrometer at 40 °C (1H, 13C APT, COSY, HSQC). NMR data were also obtained for a sample containing 15 mg of pure (l-)sodium lactate (purchased from Sigma) under the same conditions. Molecular Cloning and Recombinant Expression of GPR81 from Different Species—GPR81 genes from humans, mice, rats, dogs, pigs, cows, and monkeys were PCR-amplified using primers listed in supplemental Table 1 and respective genomic DNAs as the templates. The PCR products were then cloned in a mammalian expression vector pCIneo (Promega), and the insert regions were sequenced to confirm the sequence identities. The expression vectors were either transiently expressed in CHO-K1 cells or stably expressed in SK-N-MC/CRE-β-gal cells as described (13Liu C. Chen J. Kuei C. Sutton S. Nepomuceno D. Bonaventure P. Lovenberg T.W. Mol. Pharmacol... 2005; 67: 231-240Google Scholar). Measuring l-Lactate from Cell Culture Media and Tissue Extracts—3T3-L1 cells were differentiated in 24-well tissue culture plates for 15 days. The adipocytes were washed using lipolysis washing buffer (Zen-Bio, Inc.) and replaced with 500 μl of lipolysis assay buffer (Zen-Bio) plus additional glucose (25 mm) with or without 5 μm recombinant human insulin (Sigma). 3T3-L1 adipocytes were then incubated in a 37 °C cell culture incubator for 3 h, and lactate production was determined using a lactate assay kit (Eton Bioscience, San Diego, CA). To measure lactate contents in tissues, different rat tissues were extracted with cold 80% ethanol (tissue/solvent ratio 1:8) and centrifuged at 10,000 × g at 4 °C for 30 min. The supernatants were collected and diluted with water at different dilutions. The lactate contents were then assayed using the lactate assay kit (Eton Bioscience). Pharmacological Characterization of l-Lactate as the Ligand for GPR81—To characterize agonists for GPR81, CHO cells transiently expressing GPR81 from different species were tested using different compounds as agonists in a GTPγS binding assay. For cAMP accumulation studies, SK-N-MC/CRE-β-gal cells stably expressing human GPR81 were treated with various concentrations of l-lactate and then stimulated with forskolin. cAMP accumulation was measured as previously described (12Liu C. Eriste E. Sutton S. Chen J. Roland B. Kuei C. Farmer N. Jörnvall H. Sillard R. Lovenberg T.W. J. Biol. Chem... 2003; 278: 50754-50764Google Scholar). For pertussis toxin (PTX) treatment, cells transfected with GPR81 were treated with PTX (100 ng/ml) overnight before assaying the receptor activity. Receptor Internalization Studies—A V5 N-terminally tagged human GPR81 expression construct was constructed by adding a V5 tag (MGKPIPNPLLGLDST) coding region at the 5′ end of the human GPR81 coding region. The DNA construct was sequenced to confirm the sequence identity. The DNA construct was transfected into CHO cells. One day after transfection, the cells were cultured in low glucose medium (50% minimum essential medium Eagle plus 50% PBS and 1% bovine serum albumin) for 3 h and then incubated with anti-V5 antibody (Invitrogen) at a concentration of 2 μg/ml diluted in the low glucose medium (described above) for 20 min in a tissue culture incubator. To detect cell surface staining of V5-GPR81 on live cells, cells were washed 3 times and then incubated with Cy3-labeled goat anti-mouse IgG. To study lactate-induced GPR81 internalization, following the incubation with anti-V5 antibody, l-lactate (final concentration 25 mm) was added to stimulate the receptor internalization for 30 min. The cells were then either digested by trypsin (0.05% diluted in low glucose medium without BSA) or not for 5 min to remove the cell surface anti-V5 antibody and washed three times with PBS. Finally, the cells were fixed with paraformaldehyde and permeabilized with Triton X-100, and internalized anti-V5 antibody was visualized by staining with a Cy3-labeled goat anti-mouse IgG antibody and viewed under a fluorescent microscope. Western Blot Analysis of Erk Phosphorylation—SK-N-MC/CRE-β-gal cells stably expressing human GPR81 were treated with or without PTX (100 ng/ml) overnight. The cells were then treated either with or with out l-lactate (10 mm) for 5 min, and cell lysates were subjected to Western blot analysis using anti-phosphorylated Erk antibody (Santa Cruz Biotechnology, Inc., Santa Cruz, CA) to detect phosphorylated Erk levels. The membrane was then stripped and reblotted with anti-Erk antibody (Santa Cruz Biotechnology) for total Erk levels. SK-N-MC/CRE-β-gal cells without GPR81 were used as control. Mutagenesis Studies—Human GPR81 with a FLAG tag at the C terminus was used as the template for mutagenesis by a standard protocol. The mutant receptors were then recombinantly expressed and assayed for their responses to l-lactate in a GTPγS binding assay. All of the mutant GPR81 protein expression was verified by anti-FLAG staining. Generation of GPR81 Knock-out Mouse—GPR81-deficient mice were generated by Deltagen (San Mateo, CA). The transmembrane domain 2 of mouse GPR81 coding region (100 bp) is replaced by a 7-kb IRES-lacZ-neo cassette. Adipocyte Lipolysis Studies—3T3-L1 preadipocytes were grown in 24-well tissue culture plates and differentiated as described previously (14Lee G. Elwood F. McNally J. Weiszmann J. Lindstrom M. Amaral K. Nakamura M. Miao S. Cao P. Learned R.M. Chen J.L. Li Y. J. Biol. Chem... 2002; 277: 19649-19657Google Scholar) for 15 days. Human subcutaneous adipocytes grown and differentiated in vitro in 24-well tissue culture plates were purchased from Zen-Bio. Differentiated 3T3-L1 and human primary adipocytes were washed with lipolysis washing buffer (Zen-Bio) and incubated in lipolysis assay buffer (500 μl/well; Zen-Bio) at 37 °C in a tissue culture incubator. Three hours (3T3-L1 adipocytes) or 5 h (human primary adipocytes) after incubation, glycerol and free fatty acid (FFA) content in the assay buffer were determined using a free glycerol reagent (Sigma) or a fatty acid kit (Zen-Bio). To study lipolysis in the primary mature adipocytes, subcutaneous or epididymal fat tissues were dissected from Sprague-Dawley rats or mice with 129SvJ/C57Bl/6J background. The mature adipocytes were isolated, and lipolysis studies were performed as described previously (9Ge H. Weiszmann J. Reagan J.D. Gupte J. Baribault H. Gyuris T. Chen J.L. Tian H. Li Y. J. Lipid Res... 2008; 49: 797-803Google Scholar). Samples were taken hourly, and glycerol production and fatty acid release were determined using a free glycerol reagent (Sigma) or a fatty acid measuring kit (Zen-Bio). For human and rat adipocytes, isoproterenol was added to a final concentration of 0.5 μm to all samples to stimulate lipolysis. For 3T3-L1 adipocytes and mature adipocytes isolated from mice, lipolysis studies were performed without isoproterenol. Quantitative RT-PCR Analysis of mRNA Expression—PCR primers for the indicated genes (supplemental Table 2) were used to analyze specified mRNA expression using a method described previously (15Liu C. Kuei C. Sutton S. Chen J. Bonaventure P. Wu J. Nepomuceno D. Kamme F. Tran D. Zhu J. Wilkinson T. Bathgate R. Eriste E. Sillard R. Lovenberg T.W. J. Biol. Chem... 2005; 280: 292-300Google Scholar). cDNAs for human, rat, and mouse tissues that were used for GPR81 mRNA quantification were purchased from Clontech (Palo Alto, CA). cDNAs from differentiated or undifferentiated 3T3-L1 cells were made in house by a standard protocol. Detection of GPR81 Protein Expression in Mouse Tissues or Cells—A chicken antibody against mouse GPR81 (antibody MA) made against a C-terminal region of the mouse GPR81 (amino acid sequence DGANRSQRPSDGQW) was coated on an ELISA plate at a concentration of 1 μg/ml. The plate was blocked with blocking buffer (phosphate-buffered saline solution plus 0.1% Tween 20 (PBST) and 3% nonfat dry milk). Crude plasma membrane was prepared from different tissues from either wild type or GPR81-deficient mice or 3T3-L1 cells and solubilized with lysis buffer (50 mm Tris-HCl, 100 mm NaCl plus 1% Triton X-100). The lysates were centrifuged at 2000 × g at 4 °C for 5 min, and the clear supernatants were aliquoted into an MA antibody-coated ELISA plate in triplicates. The plate was then incubated at 4 °C overnight with shaking on a platform. The plate was washed with PBST three times and then incubated with a rabbit anti-mouse GPR81 antibody (antibody MB) against a different region of the C terminus of mouse GPR81 (amino acid sequence SLKPKRPGRTKTRRSEEMPISNLC), which was diluted into the blocking buffer at a final concentration of 1 μg/ml. The plates were incubated at room temperature for 2 h and washed with PBST followed by the incubation with a horseradish peroxidase-conjugated secondary antibody (goat anti-rabbit IgG) diluted (at a final concentration of 100 ng/ml) in blocking buffer for 2 h at room temperature. The plate was again washed with PBST and developed as described in standard ELISA protocols. Series dilutions of cell lysates from COS-7 cells expressing recombinant mouse GPR81 were included in the assay as the standards for the quantification of the relative expression levels of GPR81 from different tissues or cells. The final relative expression levels of GPR81 from different tissues were normalized by the tissue weights or the cells pellet weights for 3T3-L1 cells. Molecular Modeling—The primary sequence alignment between bovine rhodopsin 1HZX (Protein Data Bank code) and GPR81 was determined using the program ClustalW (16Higgins D. Thompson J.D. Higgins D.G. Gibson T.J. Nucleic Acids Res... 1994; 22: 4673-4680Google Scholar). The helical alignment was further examined and refined based on the multiple sequence alignment of family A GPCRs, as described elsewhere (17Mirzadegan T. Benko G. Filipek S. Palczewski K. Biochemistry.. 2003; 42: 2759-2767Google Scholar). The rhodopsin structure (1HZX) was used as a template, and based on the sequence alignment, the appropriate residues of the helices of the rhodopsin were changed to the corresponding amino acid of the GPR81 using the Insight I Homology tools (distributed by Accelrys Software Inc.). The amino acid side chains were energy-minimized and placed in a reasonable conformation. For this study, the loops were discarded, and only the transmembrane bundle was used to describe the putative small molecule-binding site. The final structure was minimized with a limited cycle using the Accelrys Discover software and CVFF force field. All of the nonbonded heavy atom clashes were removed by energy minimization of the final structure. A manual docking of the ligand was followed by further energy minimization of the complex. Identification and Purification of l-Lactate as a Ligand for GPR81—As an effort to identify the endogenous ligand(s) for orphan GPCR GPR81, we tested extracts from different rat tissues for ligand activity in GPR81-transfected cells. Surprisingly, the results showed that all tissue extracts produced apparent activity to stimulate [35S]GTPγS binding in GPR81-expressing cell membranes (Fig. 1A) but not in control cells (not shown), with the highest activities observed in tissue extracts of heart, pancreas, and brain. To purify the ligand for GPR81, porcine brain was extracted to provide substantially more material than was accessible via rat brain tissue. The majority of the porcine brain extract was lyophilized, redissolved in 1 mm HCl, and fractionated with a Restek AllureOA column. Iterative chromatography cycles resulted in a final separation and a single peak containing the active component (Fig. 1B). NMR structural analysis of the fraction with active component showed that both its 1H and 13C APT spectra are identical to that of l-lactate (Fig. 1C). The peak assignment is further supported by COSY and HSQC experiments (data not shown). The purity of the fraction was over 98% by both 1H and 13C NMR. Direct measurement of l-lactate contents in the tissue extracts shows that lactate content in the tissue extracts (supplemental Fig. 1) is consistent with the GPR81 ligand activities. Pharmacological Characterization of l-Lactate as a Ligand for GPR81—To confirm that l-lactate is indeed an agonist ligand for GPR81, commercial l-lactate at various concentrations was tested for activation of GPR81 using both GTPγS binding and direct inhibition of cAMP accumulation. The results show that l-lactate stimulates GTPγS binding with an EC50 value of about 5 mm (Fig. 2A and Table 1) in cells transfected with human GPR81 (but not in control cells or cells expressing the niacin receptors (GPR109a or GPR109b)) (Fig. 2A). In SK-N-MC/CRE-β-gal cells (a cell line harboring a β-galactosidase gene under the control of the cAMP-responsive element) stably expressing GPR81, l-lactate inhibits forskolin-induced cAMP accumulation (EC50 = 4.16 ± 0.53 mm), whereas it has no effect in control SK-N-MC/CRE-β-gal cells (Fig. 2B). Both the GTPγS binding and inhibition of cAMP accumulation suggest that GPR81 is coupled to Gi/o proteins. This hypothesis is supported by the observation that pertussis toxin inhibits l-lactate stimulated GTPγS binding (Fig. 2C) and Erk phosphorylation (Fig. 2D). Cells expressing GPR81 also showed higher basal Erk phosphorylation compared with control cells, and pertussis toxin treatment reduced the basal Erk phosphorylation (Fig. 2D). This may reflect either a constitutive level of activation of the receptor or an endogenous lactate tone within the cell/tissue, since essentially all cells produce l-lactate dependent upon metabolic conditions.TABLE 1GPR81 from different mammalian species and their EC50 values for l-lactateGPR81 from different speciesGenBank™ accession numberPercentage of homology/identity to human GPR81EC50 value for l-lactate%mmHumanEU809458100/1004.87 ± 0.64Mouse long formEU80945987/816.73 ± 0.73Mouse short formEU80946087/816.94 ± 0.84Rat long formEU80946188/816.26 ± 0.92Rat short formEU80946288/816.58 ± 0.81DogEU80946390/843.71 ± 0.47PigEU80946490/835.62 ± 0.68CowEU80946588/804.95 ± 0.42MonkeyEU80946697/954.05 ± 0.58 Open table in a new tab To investigate whether l-lactate stimulates the internalization of GPR81, we engineered a GPR81-expressing construct with a V5 tag fused to the N terminus of GPR81. V5-tagged-GPR81 responded appropriately to l-lactate stimulation as measured by GTPγS stimulation, and the dose-response curve was indistinguishable from the wild type receptor (supplemental Fig. 2). To detect the cell surface expression of V5-tagged GPR81, live cells were stained with anti-V5 antibody by diluting the antibodies into the cell culture medium. The results show that although no signal was detected in the control cells (Fig. 3A), clear cell surface staining of V5-GPR81 expression was detected from V5-GPR81-transfected cells (Fig. 3B). To measure receptor internalization, cells expressing V5-tagged GPR81 were first incubated with anti-V5 antibody, followed by l-lactate stimulation. The cells were then fixed and permeabilized, and the localizations of anti-V5 antibody-labeled receptors were detected with Cy3-labeled secondary antibody. The results show that l-lactate stimulates GPR81 redistribution in the cells. Compared with untreated cells (Fig. 3C), in l-lactate-treated cells, V5-GPR81 staining appeared at high intensity in intracellular organelles (Fig. 3D), indicating that l-lactate stimulates GPR81 internalization. Confirming this conclusion, in a parallel experiment, we treated the cells with trypsin following anti-V5 antibody incubation to remove the uninternalized antibody. The internalized anti-V5 antibody was then stained using a Cy3-labeled goat anti-mouse IgG antibody in the presence of permeabilization reagent. Our results show that although trypsin digestion reduces V5-GPR81 staining in cells without l-lactate treatment (Fig. 3E), the high intensity staining in l-lactate-treated cells appears in intracellular organelles and is resistant to trypsin digestion (Fig. 3F), indicating that they are internalized V5-GPR81. To investigate whether l-lactate can also activate GPR81 from different mammalian species, the mouse and rat GPR81 were cloned. Compared with the human GPR81, both mouse and rat GPR81 coding regions are longer at the 5′-end, encoding an additional 8 amino acids at the N terminus. However, the ATG site corresponding to the human GPR81 translation initiation is still conserved in the mouse and rat GPR81 cDNAs. Two clones for both mouse and rat GPR81 were cloned, respectively, with one clone starting with the first ATG site (designated GPR81L) and another clone using the second ATG site (corresponding to the ATG site in the human GPR81 translation initiation site, designated GPR81s). There was no observed difference between the pharmacology for the GPR81L and GPR81s clones (data not shown). Therefore, the GPR81L clones were used for all subsequent studies. We further cloned GPR81 from monkeys, dogs, pigs, and cows. Overall, GPR81 genes from different mammalian species are highly conserved (>80% sequence identity). The GenBank™ accession numbers for GPR81 genes from different species are listed in Table 1. Pharmacological characterization of recombinant GPR81 from different species demonstrated that they all respond to l-lactate through stimulation of GTPγS incorporation in membranes (Table 1), indicating conservation of the phenomenon in different species. We next tested a series of related acids as ligands for GPR81 (Table 2). Our results show that α-hydroxybutyrate, glycolate, α-hydroxyisobutyrate, and γ-hydroxybutyrate are also low affinity agonists for GPR81. In contrast, d-lactate, α-hydroxycaproic acid, malate, tartrate, and propionate are weak partial agonists for GPR81, whereas niacin, pyruvate, β-hydroxybutyrate, acetate, γ-aminobutyric acid, and butyrate are not active (Table 2). l-Lactate was unable to activate either GPR109a or GPR109b (Fig. 2A). In addition, we found that dichloroacetate (DCA) and trifluoroacetate were capable of activating GPR81 (Table 2), albeit as partial agonists.TABLE 2EC50 values and Emax of compounds tested as ligands for human GPR81CompoundsEC50 for GPR81Emaxmm% of l-lactatel-Lactate4.87 ± 0.64100GHB15.3 ± 2.14110dl-α-Hydroxybutyrate8.51 ± 1.5192Glycolate9.64 ± 1.3585Trifluoroacetate5.41 ± 0.6862α-Hydroxyisobutyrate7.83 ± 1.4357DCA3.54 ± 0.5735dl-α-Hydroxycaproic acid> 2045aAgonistic activities have been observed for those compounds, but the EC50 values for those compounds are not calculated, because the dose-response curves for those compounds did not reach plateaus. The highest responses stimulated by those ligands (up to 50 mm) are shown as the percentage of the maximum response stimulated by l-lactate.Malate> 2035aAgonistic activities have been observed for those compounds, but the EC50 values for those compounds are not calculated, because the dose-response curves for those compounds did not reach plateaus. The highest responses stimulated by those ligands (up to 50 mm) are shown as the percentage of the maximum response stimulated by l-lactate.Tartrate> 2027aAgonistic activities have been observed for those compounds, but the EC50 values for those compounds are not calculated, because the dose-response curves for those compounds did not reach plateaus. The highest responses stimulated by those ligands (up to 50 mm) are shown as the percentage of the maximum response stimulated by l-lactate.d-Lactate> 2020aAgonistic activities have been observed for those compounds, but the EC50 values for those compounds are not calculated, because the dose-response curves for those compounds did not reach plateaus. The highest responses stimulated by those ligands (up to 50 mm) are shown as the percentage of the maximum response stimulated by l-lactate.Propionate> 2015aAgonistic activities have been observed for those compounds, but the EC50 values for those compounds are not calculated, because the dose-response curves for those compounds did not reach plateaus. The highest responses stimulated by those ligands (up to 50 mm) are shown as the percentage of the maximum response stimulated by l-lactate.FormiateNAbNA, no activity. No agonistic activity was observed for these compounds (except niacin) when tested at concentrations up to 50 mm. Niacin was tested with the highest concentration of 10 mm.NDcND, not determined.AcetateNAbNA, no activity. No agonistic activity was observed for these compounds (except niacin) when tested at concentrations up to 50 mm. Niacin was tested with the highest concentration of 10 mm.NDPyruvateNAbNA, no activity. No agonistic activity was observed for these compounds (except niacin) when tested at concentrations up to 50 mm. Niacin was tested with the highest concentration of 10 mm.NDCitrateNAbNA, no activity. No agonistic activity was observed for these compounds (except niacin) when tested at concentrations up to 50 mm. Niacin was tested with the highest concentration of 10 mm.NDButyrateNAbNA, no activity. No agonistic activity was observed for these compounds (except niacin) when tested at concentrations up to 50 mm. Niacin was tested with the highest concentration of 10 mm.NDdl-β-HydroxybutyrateNAbNA, no activity. No agonistic activity was observed for these compounds (except niacin) when tested at concentrations up to 50 mm. Niacin was tested with the highest concentration of 10 mm.NDSuccinateNAbNA, no activity. No agonistic activity was observed for these compounds