Claudins are major components of tight junctions and contribute to the epithelial-barrier function by restricting free diffusion of solutes through the paracellular pathway. We have mapped a new locus for recessive renal magnesium loss on chromosome 1p34.2 and have identified mutations in CLDN19, a member of the claudin multigene family, in patients affected by hypomagnesemia, renal failure, and severe ocular abnormalities. CLDN19 encodes the tight-junction protein claudin-19, and we demonstrate high expression of CLDN19 in renal tubules and the retina. The identified mutations interfere severely with either cell-membrane trafficking or the assembly of the claudin-19 protein. The identification of CLDN19 mutations in patients with chronic renal failure and severe visual impairment supports the fundamental role of claudin-19 for normal renal tubular function and undisturbed organization and development of the retina. Claudins are major components of tight junctions and contribute to the epithelial-barrier function by restricting free diffusion of solutes through the paracellular pathway. We have mapped a new locus for recessive renal magnesium loss on chromosome 1p34.2 and have identified mutations in CLDN19, a member of the claudin multigene family, in patients affected by hypomagnesemia, renal failure, and severe ocular abnormalities. CLDN19 encodes the tight-junction protein claudin-19, and we demonstrate high expression of CLDN19 in renal tubules and the retina. The identified mutations interfere severely with either cell-membrane trafficking or the assembly of the claudin-19 protein. The identification of CLDN19 mutations in patients with chronic renal failure and severe visual impairment supports the fundamental role of claudin-19 for normal renal tubular function and undisturbed organization and development of the retina. Tight junctions constitute cell-cell contacts by forming circumferential belts around epithelial or endothelial cells in many organs. These dynamic microstructures are involved in several major cellular functions1Lee DB Huang E Ward HJ Tight junction biology and kidney dysfunction.Am J Physiol Renal Physiol. 2006; 290: F20-F34Crossref PubMed Scopus (133) Google Scholar: first, they construct a “fence” that generates cell polarity by separating apical and basolateral cell domains; second, they form trafficking and signaling platforms involved in the regulation of growth, proliferation, and differentiation of cells; third, they serve as a regulatory barrier (“gate”) that separates fluid compartments of different compositions (e.g. in the kidney, intestine, and brain). The gate properties of tight junctions are derived primarily from claudin proteins that form porelike structures that participate in the regulation of paracellular movements of ions such as magnesium. Claudins are thought to form heterodimers or -oligomers, and barrier properties of tight junctions seem to depend on the expression profiles of participating claudins.2Furuse M Tsukita S Claudins in occluding junctions of humans and flies.Trends Cell Biol. 2006; 16: 181-188Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (429) Google Scholar, 3Van Itallie CM Anderson JM Claudins and epithelial paracellular transport.Annu Rev Physiol. 2006; 68: 403-429Crossref PubMed Scopus (857) Google Scholar In the kidney, claudins confer ion selectivity to the paracellular pathway that, in particular, is important for ion reabsorption in tubular epithelia.4Colegio OR Van Itallie CM McCrea HJ Rahner C Anderson JM Claudins create charge-selective channels in the paracellular pathway between epithelial cells.Am J Physiol Cell Physiol. 2002; 283: C142-C147Crossref PubMed Scopus (398) Google Scholar, 5Van Itallie CM Fanning AS Anderson JM Reversal of charge selectivity in cation or anion-selective epithelial lines by expression of different claudins.Am J Physiol Renal Physiol. 2003; 285: F1078-F1084PubMed Google Scholar Mutations in CLDN16 (which encodes claudin-16) have been identified in familial hypomagnesemia with hypercalciuria and nephrocalcinosis (FHHNC [MIM *248250]), a recessive renal disorder of paracellular magnesium and calcium reabsorption in the thick ascending limb of Henle’s loop (TAL).6Simon DB Lu Y Choate KA Velazquez H Al-Sabban E Praga M Casari G Bettinelli A Colussi G Rodriguez-Soriano J McCredie D Milford D Sanjad S Lifton RP Paracellin-1, a renal tight junction protein required for paracellular Mg2+ resorption.Science. 1999; 285: 103-106Crossref PubMed Scopus (909) Google Scholar, 7Weber S Schneider L Peters M Misselwitz J Ronnefarth G Boswald M Bonzel KE Seeman T Sulakova T Kuwertz-Broking E Gregoric A Palcoux JB Tasic V Manz F Scharer K Seyberth HW Konrad M Novel paracellin-1 mutations in 25 families with familial hypomagnesemia with hypercalciuria and nephrocalcinosis.J Am Soc Nephrol. 2001; 12: 1872-1881PubMed Google Scholar, 8Blanchard A Jeunemaitre X Coudol P Dechaux M Froissart M May A Demontis R Fournier A Paillard M Houillier P Paracellin-1 is critical for magnesium and calcium reabsorption in the human thick ascending limb of Henle.Kidney Int. 2001; 59: 2206-2215PubMed Google Scholar In rare cases, CLDN16 mutations lead to transient hypercalciuria with nephrocalcinosis without significant disturbance of magnesium reabsorption.9Muller D Kausalya PJ Claverie-Martin F Meij IC Eggert P Garcia-Nieto V Hunziker W A novel claudin 16 mutation associated with childhood hypercalciuria abolishes binding to ZO-1 and results in lysosomal mistargeting.Am J Hum Genet. 2003; 73: 1293-1301Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (144) Google Scholar We have clinically characterized one Swiss and eight Spanish/Hispanic families affected with severe hypomagnesemia due to renal wasting, nephrocalcinosis, and progressive renal failure but did not have any mutations in CLDN16 (table 1). Detailed clinical data about families F48–F51 and F76 were reported elsewhere.10Meier W Blumberg A Imahorn W De Luca F Wildberger H Oetliker O Idiopathic hypercalciuria with bilateral macular colobomata: a new variant of oculo-renal syndrome.Helv Paediatr Acta. 1979; 34: 257-269PubMed Google Scholar, 11Rodriguez-Soriano J Vallo A Pathophysiology of the renal acidification defect present in the syndrome of familial hypomagnesaemia-hypercalciuria.Pediatr Nephrol. 1994; 8: 431-435Crossref PubMed Scopus (50) Google Scholar The renal phenotype was virtually undistinguishable from that of patients with FHHNC with proven CLDN16 mutations. However, the affected individuals in these families also have severe visual impairment, characterized by macular colobomata, significant myopia, and horizontal nystagmus. With the assumption of the involvement of a second locus in the non-CLDN16 hypomagnesemic patients, we performed a genome scan for shared homozygous regions in these families of known and suspected consanguinity. Informed consent was obtained from all participating individuals. We genotyped five members of the Swiss family and all Spanish/Hispanic patients, using a 50,000-SNP array (Affymetrix GeneChip Human Mapping 50K Array Xba240). Genomewide linkage analysis was performed, with the assumption of heterogeneity and second-degree cousin marriages for the parents of the Spanish/Hispanic families. A critical region on chromosome 1p34.2, with a highly significant heterogeneity LOD score (HLOD) of 6.4, was identified using Genehunter-Modscore12Kruglyak L Daly MJ Reeve-Daly MP Lander ES Parametric and nonparametric linkage analysis: a unified multipoint approach.Am J Hum Genet. 1996; 58: 1347-1363PubMed Google Scholar, 13Strauch K Fimmers R Kurz T Deichmann KA Wienker TF Baur MP Parametric and nonparametric multipoint linkage analysis with imprinting and two-locus-trait models: application to mite sensitization.Am J Hum Genet. 2000; 66: 1945-1957Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (151) Google Scholar (fig. 1A). On the basis of the haplotype data from patients with extended homozygosity, this interval is delimited by SNP markers rs3845572 and rs2367190 and comprises ∼2 Mb, with CLDN19 as the most promising positional candidate (fig. 1B) (Ensembl). CLDN19 was still in the critical interval of ∼740 kb, even when a less precise definition was used and additional patients with shorter homozygous segments in that region were considered. Only one Spanish/Hispanic patient (F52) did not show a homozygous segment in this interval.Table 1Phenotypic Characteristics of the Patient CohortFindings for PatientCharacteristicF76.V-4aDeceased.F76.V-1F75.II-1F48.II-1F68.II-1F49.II-3F51-II-1F50.II-1F67.II-1F52.II-2F90.IV-2F90.IV-3Ethnic OriginSwissSwissSpanishSpanishHispanicSpanishSpanishSpanishHispanicSpanishTurkishTurkishSexMFMMFFMMMMFMAge (in years) at symptoms onset0.86.03.03.60.57.70.20.80.10.80.90.2Present age (in years)393649263.018102114102.51.0Renal phenotypebAll patients are or were affected with hypomagnesemia, hypercalciuria, and nephrocalcinosis.: NephrolithiasisYesYesYesNoNoNoNoNoNoYesNoYes Urinary tract infectionsYesYesNoNoYesYesYesNoNoYesYesYes Actual renal functioncTPL indicates that the patient underwent kidney transplantation; CRF indicates that the patient experienced chronic renal failure.TPLTPLCRFCRFNormalCRFCRFCRFTPLTPLNormalNormalOcular phenotype: Macular colobomataYesYesNoYesNoNoNoYesUnknownNoYesUnknown NystagmusYesYesYesYesYesYesYesYesUnknownYesYesYes MyopiaYesYesYesYesYesYesNodUnconfirmed.YesYesNoYesYesa Deceased.b All patients are or were affected with hypomagnesemia, hypercalciuria, and nephrocalcinosis.c TPL indicates that the patient underwent kidney transplantation; CRF indicates that the patient experienced chronic renal failure.d Unconfirmed. Open table in a new tab CLDN19 encodes for claudin-19, a recently described member of the claudin multigene family. Claudin-19 is expressed in few organs, and the highest levels are found in the kidney and the eye (UniGene profile). By sequence analysis of the coding region and the adjacent intron/exon boundaries, we identified two different homozygous missense mutations, a Spanish/Hispanic mutation (G20D) located in the first transmembrane domain that was identified in all Spanish/Hispanic patients except F52, and a Swiss mutation (Q57E) located in the first extracellular loop of claudin-19 (figs. 2A, 2B, and 3) (primer sequences are available on request). The G20 and Q57 residues of the claudin-19 protein are highly conserved throughout evolution, and both mutations replace a neutral with a negatively charged amino acid. SIFT (sorting intolerant from tolerant) analysis supports the pathogenicity of both mutations. In addition, the two mutations cosegregate with the disease phenotype and were not found in 196 ethnically matched control chromosomes for the Spanish/Hispanic mutation or 150 Swiss individuals (300 chromosomes) for the Swiss mutation (number of controls allows detection of a 1% polymorphism with a power of 0.8). Obviously, a recent founder effect is responsible for the concordance of the mutation in all Spanish/Hispanic patients, since it is embedded into the same haplotype background that extends over >450 kb (fig. 1B).Figure 3Predicted model of claudin-19, with four transmembrane domains, two extracellular loops, and intracellular termini. The first loop is characterized by the claudin-specific amino acid motif W-GLW-C-C. The Spanish/Hispanic mutation G20D is localized in the first transmembrane domain, the Swiss mutation Q57E affects a residue located between the two cysteines of the W-GLW-C-C motif, and the Turkish mutation L90P resides in the second transmembrane domain.View Large Image Figure ViewerDownload Hi-res image Download (PPT) Functional analysis of G20D and Q57E claudin-19 was performed by heterologous expression of the mutants in Madin-Darby canine kidney (MDCK) cells. For immunodetection, a V5-epitope sequence was added to the carboxy terminus of the claudin-19 constructs. These were then transiently expressed in MDCK cells, were stained with a mouse monoclonal anti-V5 antibody (Invitrogen) and a Cy2-coupled goat–anti-mouse polyclonal antibody (Jackson Immuno Research), and were visualized by laser scanning microscopy. Expression analysis revealed perinuclear retention of the G20D mutant, whereas wild-type claudin-19 is targeted to the cell membrane, which points to a trafficking defect (fig. 4). This trafficking defect of the mutant is explained by a disturbance of the signal-peptide sequence, corresponding to the first 20 aa of the claudin-19 protein, as predicted by in silico analysis (SignalP 3.0). The Q57E mutant, however, inserts correctly into the cell membrane. This missense mutation is located in the region of the W-GLW-C-C signature sequence that characterizes all members of the claudin family3Van Itallie CM Anderson JM Claudins and epithelial paracellular transport.Annu Rev Physiol. 2006; 68: 403-429Crossref PubMed Scopus (857) Google Scholar (fig. 3). A 3D model of the first 115 aa of claudin-19 was constructed using ROSETTA de novo methods, with use of a structure library of protein fragments.14Schueler-Furman O Wang C Bradley P Misura K Baker D Progress in modeling of protein structures and interactions.Science. 2005; 310: 638-642Crossref PubMed Scopus (244) Google Scholar Quality of the model was checked by WHATCHECK15Hooft RW Vriend G Sander C Abola EE Errors in protein structures.Nature. 1996; 381: 272Crossref PubMed Scopus (1725) Google Scholar and Ramachandran plot analysis.16Ramachandra GN Ramakrishnan C Sasisekharan V Stereochemistry of polypeptide chain configurations.J Mol Biol. 1963; 7: 95-99Crossref PubMed Scopus (2485) Google Scholar The final model was energetically stable and had the features characteristic of transmembrane proteins (fig. 5A). Since the first extracellular loop of claudins is thought to bridge the paracellular space and claudin-5 has been said to form homodimers,17Blasig IE Winkler L Lassowski B Mueller SL Zuleger N Krause E Krause G Gast K Kolbe M Piontek J On the self-association potential of transmembrane tight junction proteins.Cell Mol Life Sci. 2006; 63: 505-514Crossref PubMed Scopus (95) Google Scholar we subsequently tested, by applying the PATCHDOCK software,18Schneidman-Duhovny D Inbar Y Polak V Shatsky M Halperin I Benyamini H Barzilai A Dror O Haspel N Nussinov R Wolfson HJ Taking geometry to its edge: fast unbound rigid (and hinge-bent) docking.Proteins. 2003; 52: 107-112Crossref PubMed Scopus (206) Google Scholar whether claudin-19 can form a homodimer and whether Q57 has any role in this complex formation. Of the best 10 solutions obtained, 8 showed involvement of the first extracellular loop in the dimer formation, with Q57 of the first molecule interacting with Q61 and Q63 of the second molecule (fig. 5B). This computational model cannot predict whether the claudin-19 dimer is located in one cell or in opposing cells bridging the intercellular space; however, it is well known that members of the claudin family form homo- and heterodimers, both interacting laterally and bridging the intercellular space with their extracellular domains.3Van Itallie CM Anderson JM Claudins and epithelial paracellular transport.Annu Rev Physiol. 2006; 68: 403-429Crossref PubMed Scopus (857) Google Scholar, 19Furuse M Sasaki H Tsukita S Manner of interaction of heterogeneous claudin species within and between tight junction strands.J Cell Biol. 1999; 147: 891-903Crossref PubMed Scopus (585) Google Scholar Docking calculations were repeated after in silico introduction of the mutation Q57E in the monomeric model. The dimer formation was disrupted with the mutant protein, which is possibly due to strong electrostatic repulsion from opposing E residues (fig. 5C).Figure 5Three-dimensional structural models of claudin-19. A, The first 115 aa of claudin-19 are shown as a ribbon diagram in a gradient of rainbow colors, with the N terminus depicted in blue. The G20D mutation is located in the first transmembrane region that is buried in the membrane. The strong change in the charge pattern by the replacement of glycine with aspartic acid presumably influences intramolecular interactions that will alter the signal sequence. The Q57E mutation is located in the first extracellular loop and is likely to affect electrostatic interactions that result in altered protein-protein interactions. The L90P mutation is located in the second transmembrane domain. B, Potential model of claudin-19 homodimer formation. A representative docking solution—which shows the involvement of the first extracellular loop in the dimer formation with Q57 of the first molecule interacting with Q61 and Q63 of the second molecule—is depicted. The two claudin-19 molecules are colored in red and blue. The claudin-19 homodimer seems to be stabilized by interaction of Q57 of one molecule with Q63 of the partner molecule. C, Effect of the Q57E mutation on claudin-19 homodimer formation. Docking calculations were repeated after performing in silico mutation of Q57E in the monomeric model. The dimer formation was disrupted with the mutant protein, possibly because of strong electrostatic repulsion from opposing E residues.View Large Image Figure ViewerDownload Hi-res image Download (PPT) Subsequently, we identified another consanguineous family with two children with FHHNC and severe ocular involvement (family F90 [table 1 and fig. 2C]). This family is of Turkish origin. Direct sequencing of CLDN19 revealed a homozygous L90P mutation in both affected siblings and was detected at a heterozygous state in the obligate carriers (fig. 2C and 2D). The possibility of a polymorphism was ruled out by testing 220 Turkish control chromosomes. Moreover, SIFT and PolyPhen analyses (score 2.43) indicate pathogenicity of this mutation, and L90 is highly conserved among claudin genes across all species. L90 is located in the second transmembrane domain, and the replacement by a proline disrupts the α-helices, as predicted by the GOR IV secondary structure–prediction method. This might be explained by the rigid structure of the proline residue, where the side chain is covalently bound to its amino-terminal end. Together with the two mutation described above, these data clearly indicate that the pathogenesis of FHHNC with severe ocular abnormalities in humans is explained by mutations in CLDN19. A recently generated Cldn19 knockout mouse model demonstrates disorganized tight junctions in the Schwann cells of the peripheral nervous system, and homozygous animals show abnormal behavior and peripheral neuropathy.20Miyamoto T Morita K Takemoto D Takeuchi K Kitano Y Miyakawa T Nakayama K Okamura Y Sasaki H Miyachi Y Furuse M Tsukita S Tight junctions in Schwann cells of peripheral myelinated axons: a lesson from claudin-19-deficient mice.J Cell Biol. 2005; 169: 527-538Crossref PubMed Scopus (139) Google Scholar Visual impairment, electrolyte imbalances, and renal abnormalities are not reported in that work.20Miyamoto T Morita K Takemoto D Takeuchi K Kitano Y Miyakawa T Nakayama K Okamura Y Sasaki H Miyachi Y Furuse M Tsukita S Tight junctions in Schwann cells of peripheral myelinated axons: a lesson from claudin-19-deficient mice.J Cell Biol. 2005; 169: 527-538Crossref PubMed Scopus (139) Google Scholar This might be because these parameters have not been studied. It is also possible that phenotypic disparities actually exist between the human and the murine model, which could be explained by the fact that different members of the large claudin family seem to be able to compensate for specific claudin defects to a variable extent, dependent on the species and the specific genetic background of the model. However, previous studies of mice demonstrated a strong expression of claudin-19 in the distal tubules of the kidney cortex,21Lee NP Tong MK Leung PP Chan VW Leung S Tam PC Chan KW Lee KF Yeung WS Luk JM Kidney claudin-19: localization in distal tubules and collecting ducts and dysregulation in polycystic renal disease.FEBS Lett. 2006; 580: 923-931Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (47) Google Scholar which supports a functional role of claudin-19 for paracellular electrolyte-transport mechanisms. We therefore studied the expression of claudin-19 in the kidney in more detail. In situ hybridization analysis was performed using probes that recognize Cldn16 (GenBank accession number NM_053241 [nucleotides 154–1074]) and Cldn19 (GenBank accession number BC115827 [nucleotides 63–908]). These experiments revealed a highly similar expression pattern of claudin-19 and -16 mRNAs in mouse cortical kidney tubules (fig. 6A and 6B). Higher magnification of series kidney sections suggests a colocalization of both claudins (fig. 6C–6F). To identify the nephron segments expressing Cldn19, we performed RT-PCR analysis in microdissected mouse nephron segments (primer sequences are available on request). Cldn19 is expressed in exactly the same nephron segments as is Cldn16—namely, the medullary and cortical TAL, with a lower level of expression in the distal convoluted tubule (fig. 6G). These results were confirmed by immunohistochemistry of series kidney sections with use of polyclonal rabbit anti–claudin-19 (as described by Lee et al.21Lee NP Tong MK Leung PP Chan VW Leung S Tam PC Chan KW Lee KF Yeung WS Luk JM Kidney claudin-19: localization in distal tubules and collecting ducts and dysregulation in polycystic renal disease.FEBS Lett. 2006; 580: 923-931Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (47) Google Scholar) and anti–claudin-16 (Zymed) antibodies at a dilution of 1:200. Anti-rabbit Cy3 (Rockland) was used as secondary antibody, at a dilution of 1:1,600. Bisbenzimide H33258 was used for nuclear staining (Serva). Consistent with the results of RT-PCR analysis, immunohistochemistry revealed a marked apical and slighter basolateral expression of both claudins in the TAL and distal tubules (fig. 7A and 7B). Negative controls were performed by omission of the primary antibodies (fig. 7C and 7F). At higher magnification, the expression of both proteins could be detected at cell-cell contacts (fig. 7D and 7E). Thus, it seems possible that both claudins interact at the tight-junction barrier of the renal tubules involved in paracellular magnesium and calcium reabsorption.Figure 7Immunofluorescence analysis of claudin-19 and claudin-16 in mouse kidney. A and B, Series kidney sections showing similar apical staining patterns of claudin-19 and claudin-16 in the TAL and distal tubules. Scale bars represent 25 μm. D and E, Higher magnification, which demonstrates protein expression at cell-cell contacts (nuclear staining in blue). Scale bars represent 15 μm. C and F, Negative control with omission of the primary anti–claudin-19 and anti–claudin-16-antibodies (C) and nuclear staining of the same section (F).View Large Image Figure ViewerDownload Hi-res image Download (PPT) Immunohistochemistry was subsequently performed on ocular sections of zebrafish (claudin-19 antibody dilution 1:100). In the eye, claudin-19 is expressed specifically in the retina, with a strong expression in the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE). Additional claudin-19 staining was observed in the inner plexiform layer (IPL) and the inner nuclear layer (INL) (fig. 8). Negative controls consisted of omission of the primary antibody and the evaluation of autofluorescence (data not shown). Different claudins are known to be expressed during ocular development at the tight junctions of the RPE—for example, claudins-1, -2, -5, and -12—and proper tight-junction formation is required for apical cell polarity and an intact retinal transfusion barrier.22Rahner C Fukuhara M Peng S Kojima S Rizzolo LJ The apical and basal environments of the retinal pigment epithelium regulate the maturation of tight junctions during development.J Cell Sci. 2004; 117: 3307-3318Crossref PubMed Scopus (42) Google Scholar As a consequence, loss of tight-junction formation can result in the mistargeting of factors that influence retinal cell division.22Rahner C Fukuhara M Peng S Kojima S Rizzolo LJ The apical and basal environments of the retinal pigment epithelium regulate the maturation of tight junctions during development.J Cell Sci. 2004; 117: 3307-3318Crossref PubMed Scopus (42) Google Scholar To our knowledge, the present study demonstrates for the first time that claudin-19 is an important component of RPE tight junctions and that patients affected by CLDN19 mutations present with a marked misdevelopment of the optic disc, which is associated with near blindness and the manifestation of a horizontal nystagmus. The eye phenotypes in patients with CLDN19 mutations reported here are much more severe than phenotypes reported elsewhere for patients with FHHNC.7Weber S Schneider L Peters M Misselwitz J Ronnefarth G Boswald M Bonzel KE Seeman T Sulakova T Kuwertz-Broking E Gregoric A Palcoux JB Tasic V Manz F Scharer K Seyberth HW Konrad M Novel paracellin-1 mutations in 25 families with familial hypomagnesemia with hypercalciuria and nephrocalcinosis.J Am Soc Nephrol. 2001; 12: 1872-1881PubMed Google Scholar For a long time, ocular involvement with an FHHNC phenotype has been observed with much higher frequency in Spanish patients than in patients from other parts of the world (reviewed by Benigno et al.23Benigno V Canonica CS Bettinelli A von Vigier RO Truttmann AC Bianchetti MG Hypomagnesaemia-hypercalciuria-nephrocalcinosis: a report of nine cases and a review.Nephrol Dial Transplant. 2000; 15: 605-610Crossref PubMed Scopus (79) Google Scholar). We have now provided evidence that genetic heterogeneity is responsible for this phenotypic difference and that mutations in CLDN19 are the causative defect in this subset of patients (i.e., those with FHHNC and severe ocular involvement). The identification of CLDN19 mutations in patients with hypomagnesemia, chronic renal failure, and severe visual impairment supports the fundamental role of claudin-19 for magnesium homeostasis, normal tubular structures in the kidney, and undisturbed organization and development of the retina. We are indebted to the participating patients and their families for their cooperation. We thank Bärbel Philippin, Ulla Pechmann, and Franziska Rubi, for excellent technical assistance. The work was supported by the German Federal Ministry of Science and Education through the National Genome Research Network (support to D.S., C.B., and P.N.), the Swiss National Science Foundation (to S.C.F.N.), and Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule internal grants (to A.L.).