Alzheimer's disease is characterized by extensive cerebral amyloid deposition. Amyloid deposits associated with damaged neuropil and blood vessels contain abundant fibrils formed by the amyloid β-protein (Aβ). Fibrils, both in vitro and in vivo, are neurotoxic. For this reason, substantial effort has been expended to develop therapeutic approaches to control Aβ production and amyloidogenesis. Achievement of the latter goal is facilitated by a rigorous mechanistic understanding of the fibrillogenesis process. Recently, we discovered a novel intermediate in the pathway of Aβ fibril formation, the amyloid protofibril (Walsh, D. M., Lomakin, A., Benedek, G. B., Condron, M. M., and Teplow, D. B. (1997) J. Biol. Chem. 272, 22364–22372). We report here results of studies of the assembly, structure, and biological activity of these polymers. We find that protofibrils: 1) are in equilibrium with low molecular weight Aβ (monomeric or dimeric); 2) have a secondary structure characteristic of amyloid fibrils; 3) appear as beaded chains in rotary shadowed preparations examined electron microscopically; 4) give rise to mature amyloid-like fibrils; and 5) affect the normal metabolism of cultured neurons. The implications of these results for the development of therapies for Alzheimer's disease and for our understanding of fibril assembly are discussed. Alzheimer's disease is characterized by extensive cerebral amyloid deposition. Amyloid deposits associated with damaged neuropil and blood vessels contain abundant fibrils formed by the amyloid β-protein (Aβ). Fibrils, both in vitro and in vivo, are neurotoxic. For this reason, substantial effort has been expended to develop therapeutic approaches to control Aβ production and amyloidogenesis. Achievement of the latter goal is facilitated by a rigorous mechanistic understanding of the fibrillogenesis process. Recently, we discovered a novel intermediate in the pathway of Aβ fibril formation, the amyloid protofibril (Walsh, D. M., Lomakin, A., Benedek, G. B., Condron, M. M., and Teplow, D. B. (1997) J. Biol. Chem. 272, 22364–22372). We report here results of studies of the assembly, structure, and biological activity of these polymers. We find that protofibrils: 1) are in equilibrium with low molecular weight Aβ (monomeric or dimeric); 2) have a secondary structure characteristic of amyloid fibrils; 3) appear as beaded chains in rotary shadowed preparations examined electron microscopically; 4) give rise to mature amyloid-like fibrils; and 5) affect the normal metabolism of cultured neurons. The implications of these results for the development of therapies for Alzheimer's disease and for our understanding of fibril assembly are discussed. 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Rigorous biophysical studies of fibrillogenesis require well characterized, homogeneous starting peptide preparations, free of pre-existing fibrillar material, particulates, or other types of fibril seeds. In prior studies, synthetic Aβ has been dissolved in water or in organic solvents, then diluted directly into buffer for use (21Jarrett J.T. Berger E.P. Lansbury Jr., P.T. Biochemistry. 1993; 32: 4693-4697Crossref PubMed Scopus (1760) Google Scholar, 22Harper J.D. Wong S.S. Lieber C.M. Lansbury P.T. Chem. Biol. 1997; 4: 119-125Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (626) Google Scholar, 23Howlett D.R. Jennings K.H. Lee D.C. Clark M.S. Brown F. Wetzel R. Wood S.J. Camilleri P. Roberts G.W. Neurodegeneration. 1995; 4: 23-32Crossref PubMed Scopus (188) Google Scholar, 24Wood S.J. Maleeff B. Hart T. Wetzel R. J. Mol. Biol. 1996; 256: 870-877Crossref PubMed Scopus (341) Google Scholar). It has been demonstrated that when synthetic Aβ peptides are resuspended at neutral pH they contain a heterogeneous mixture of different sized species (25Snyder S.W. Ladror U.S. Wade W.S. Wang G.T. Barrett L.W. Matayoshi E.D. Huffaker H.J. Krafft G.A. Holzman T.F. Biophys. J. 1994; 67: 1216-1228Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (348) Google Scholar, 26Walsh D.M. Lomakin A. Benedek G.B. Condron M.M. Teplow D.B. J. Biol. Chem. 1997; 272: 22364-22372Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (948) Google Scholar). In some cases, attempts to physically “de-seed” stock peptide solutions have been made (21Jarrett J.T. Berger E.P. Lansbury Jr., P.T. Biochemistry. 1993; 32: 4693-4697Crossref PubMed Scopus (1760) Google Scholar). However, in most studies, either no precautions were taken or filtration through 0.2-μm filters, incapable of removing anything other than large aggregates, was used. The use of these solutions complicates data interpretation and precludes the study of the earliest phases of fibrillogenesis in vitro. We recently demonstrated that size exclusion chromatography (SEC) can be used to prepare homogeneous populations of Aβ, termed low molecular weight Aβ (LMW Aβ), which are composed of monomeric or dimeric Aβ molecules (26Walsh D.M. Lomakin A. Benedek G.B. Condron M.M. Teplow D.B. J. Biol. Chem. 1997; 272: 22364-22372Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (948) Google Scholar). Using these preparations to study Aβ fibrillogenesis, we discovered and reported the initial characterization of a new fibrillogenesis intermediate, the amyloid protofibril (26Walsh D.M. Lomakin A. Benedek G.B. Condron M.M. Teplow D.B. J. Biol. Chem. 1997; 272: 22364-22372Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (948) Google Scholar). This intermediate was also described independently by Harper et al. (22Harper J.D. Wong S.S. Lieber C.M. Lansbury P.T. Chem. Biol. 1997; 4: 119-125Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (626) Google Scholar). Protofibrils are short, flexible fibrils, generally 4–10 nm in diameter and up to 200 nm in length, as measured by negative staining and electron microscopy. Protofibrils appear transiently during Aβ fibrillogenesis (26Walsh D.M. Lomakin A. Benedek G.B. Condron M.M. Teplow D.B. J. Biol. Chem. 1997; 272: 22364-22372Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (948) Google Scholar, 27Harper J.D. Lieber C.M. Lansbury P.T. Chem. Biol. 1997; 4: 951-959Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (414) Google Scholar). Evidence suggests that protofibrils are precursors of the longer, more rigid, amyloid-type fibrils typically produced in vitro using synthetic peptides (22Harper J.D. Wong S.S. Lieber C.M. Lansbury P.T. Chem. Biol. 1997; 4: 119-125Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (626) Google Scholar, 26Walsh D.M. Lomakin A. Benedek G.B. Condron M.M. Teplow D.B. J. Biol. Chem. 1997; 272: 22364-22372Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (948) Google Scholar). If an analogous fibril maturation mechanism operates in vivo, the protofibril stage could be an important therapeutic focus. This may, in fact, be the case as soluble oligomeric forms of Aβ have been isolated from human AD brain (28Kuo Y.M. Emmerling M.R. Vigo-Pelfrey C. Kasunic T.C. Kirkpatrick J.B. Murdoch G.H. Ball M.J. Roher A.E. J. Biol. Chem. 1996; 271: 4077-4081Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (555) Google Scholar). We report here results of studies which significantly extend our knowledge of protofibril morphology, the kinetics and equilibria of protofibril formation and disappearance, the secondary structure of protofibrils and their LMW Aβ precursors, and the biological activity of protofibrils. Our findings suggest that in developing therapies targeting Aβ toxicity, consideration must be given not only to the effects of mature, amyloid-type fibrils, but also to those of protofibrils, and potentially, protofibril precursors. Chemicals were obtained from Sigma and were of the highest purity available. Water was double-distilled and deionized using a Milli-Q system (Millipore Corp., Bedford, MA). Tissue culture components were obtained from Life Technologies, Inc. (Grand Island, NY). Aβ(1–40) was synthesized and purified in our laboratory as described (26Walsh D.M. Lomakin A. Benedek G.B. Condron M.M. Teplow D.B. J. Biol. Chem. 1997; 272: 22364-22372Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (948) Google Scholar). Peptide mass, purity, and quantity were determined by a combination of matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry, analytical high performance liquid chromatography, and quantitative amino acid analysis (AAA). Purified peptides were aliquoted, lyophilized, and stored at −20 °C until used. Aβ(1–40) was also obtained from Bachem (Torrance, CA) and Quality Controlled Biochemicals (Hopkington, MA). Estimates of peptide content were provided by each manufacturer. Iodinated Aβ(1–40) (125I-Aβ(1–40); ∼2000 Ci/mmol in 35% (v/v) acetonitrile, 0.1% (v/v) trifluoroacetic acid) was generously provided by Dr. Evelyn R. Stimson, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine. A Superdex 75 HR 10/30 column (Amersham Pharmacia Biotech, Piscataway, NJ) was attached either to a Waters 650 Advanced Protein Purification system, consisting of a Waters 650 controller and pump, a Rheodyne 9125 injector, a Waters 484 tunable absorbance detector, and a Waters 745 data module, or to a Beckman 110B solvent delivery system module 406 and System Gold detector module 166. In this work, the term “low molecular weight Aβ” (LMW Aβ) signifies an Aβ species which elutes from a SEC column as a single peak and has a hydrodynamic radius consistent with that of either an extended monomer or a compact dimer (determined by quasielastic light scattering spectroscopy (QLS) to be 1–2 nm) (26Walsh D.M. Lomakin A. Benedek G.B. Condron M.M. Teplow D.B. J. Biol. Chem. 1997; 272: 22364-22372Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (948) Google Scholar). To isolate LMW Aβ, Aβ(1–40) was dissolved at a concentration of 2 mg/ml in dimethyl sulfoxide and sonicated in a Branson 1200 ultrasonic water bath for 10 min, after which 200 μl of this solution were injected into the SEC column. The column was eluted with 0.05 m Tris-HCl, pH 7.4, containing 0.02% (w/v) sodium azide, at a flow rate of 0.5 ml/min. Peptides were detected by UV absorbance at 254 nm, and 350-μl volume fractions were collected during elution of the LMW Aβ peak. Pre-dissolution of Aβ in either dimethyl sulfoxide or buffer gave essentially the same results with respect to SEC and subsequent QLS and circular dichroism spectroscopy (CD) analysis, but dimethyl sulfoxide treatment significantly increased the recovery of peptide. Protofibrils were prepared essentially as described (26Walsh D.M. Lomakin A. Benedek G.B. Condron M.M. Teplow D.B. J. Biol. Chem. 1997; 272: 22364-22372Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (948) Google Scholar). Briefly, 400 μg of Aβ(1–40) were dissolved in 100 μl of water, diluted with an equal volume of 0.2m Tris-HCl, pH 7.4, containing 0.04% (w/v) sodium azide, then incubated at room temperature for 40–60 h. The yield of protofibrils varied among different peptide lots, but a 1–2-day incubation period generally yielded equivalent amounts of protofibrils and LMW Aβ. Following incubation, the solution was centrifuged at 16,000 × g (measured at tube bottom) for 5 min, then ∼160 μl of the supernate were fractionated by SEC, as described above. This procedure yields a symmetric peak in the void volume of the column (Mr > 30,000 for dextrans) which contained protofibrils and a peak of LMW Aβ in the included volume (26Walsh D.M. Lomakin A. Benedek G.B. Condron M.M. Teplow D.B. J. Biol. Chem. 1997; 272: 22364-22372Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (948) Google Scholar). Electron microscopic examination of the assemblies in the void peak have revealed small globular structures ∼5 nm in diameter and rods with lengths up to ∼200 nm. Based on a 4–5-nm diameter rod and a linear density of Aβ molecules of 0.8 nm−1 (29Lomakin A. Chung D.S. Benedek G.B. Kirschner D.A. Teplow D.B. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 1996; 93: 1125-1129Crossref PubMed Scopus (733) Google Scholar), the molecular masses of these assemblies would range from ∼25 to 900 kDa. Samples were prepared for electron microscopy (EM) using both negative contrast and rotary shadowing techniques. Preparation of samples for negative contrast was performed as described (26Walsh D.M. Lomakin A. Benedek G.B. Condron M.M. Teplow D.B. J. Biol. Chem. 1997; 272: 22364-22372Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (948) Google Scholar). Briefly, sample was applied to a carbon-coated Formvar grid, fixed with a solution of glutaraldehyde, then stained with uranyl acetate. Samples were observed using a JEOL 1200 EX transmission electron microscope. For rotary shadowing, casts of samples were prepared essentially as described (30San Antonio J.D. Lander A.D. Karnovsky M.J. Slayter H.S. J. Cell Biol. 1994; 125: 1179-1188Crossref PubMed Scopus (95) Google Scholar). 100-μl aliquots of protofibril fractions were first diluted in 5 mmimidazole, 50 mm NaCl, to ∼1 ml and then diluted with 2 volumes of freshly distilled glycerol. The resulting solution was sprayed onto newly cleaved mica sheets and rotary shadowed using a Denton vacuum evaporator and a platinum source such that an ∼1 nm thick sheet of platinum was deposited on the mica. Following this treatment, a thin carbon film was deposited on top of the platinum. The replica was floated off on water and picked up with a 400-mesh copper grid and examined using a JEOL 100 CX transmission electron microscope. 400 μg of Aβ(1–40) were dissolved in 20 μl of dimethyl sulfoxide, to which was added 10 μl of 125I-Aβ(1–40). This mixture was then diluted with 70 μl of water, 100 μl of 0.2 mTris-HCl, pH 7.4, containing 0.04% (w/v) sodium azide, and then incubated at room temperature for 48–60 h. Following incubation, the solution was centrifuged at 16,000 × g for 5 min and 160 μl of supernate fractionated by SEC, as described above. 200-μl aliquots of the LMW Aβ and protofibril fractions were placed in 1-ml sterile Spectra/Por CE DispoDialyzers (Spectrum Scientific, Laguna Hills, CA) and dialyzed with gentle stirring at room temperature versus 20 ml of 0.05 m Tris-HCl, pH 7.4, containing 0.02% (w/v) sodium azide. In addition, other aliquots of the SEC fractions were used for negative contrast EM, AAA, and scintillation counting. To ensure that the 125I-Aβ was accurately tracing the cold peptide, all SEC fractions were subjected to scintillation counting and the radiotracer profile compared with the UV chromatogram. Only samples which showed a similar distribution of radiolabel and UV absorbance were used. In order to monitor the release of LMW 125I-Aβ(1–40) from the dialysis bag, 1-ml aliquots of dialysis buffer were removed and counted. The aliquots were returned to the dialysis chamber after counting (normally <5 min after their removal). At the end of the experiment, the bag was removed, counted, and a sample of the contents taken for negative contrast EM. QLS was performed as described previously (26Walsh D.M. Lomakin A. Benedek G.B. Condron M.M. Teplow D.B. J. Biol. Chem. 1997; 272: 22364-22372Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (948) Google Scholar). Briefly, measurements were performed at 25 °C using a Langley Ford model 1097 autocorrelator and a Coherent argon ion laser (Model Innova 90-plus) tuned to 514 nm. LMW Aβ and protofibrils were isolated as described above. To avoid interference from dust, QLS tubes were washed in a continual flow of eluent from a Superdex 75 column and LMW Aβ or protofibril material were collected directly into these tubes by displacement (31Lomakin A. Benedek G.B. Teplow D.B. Methods Enzymol. 1999; 309 (in press)PubMed Google Scholar). The tubes were then heat-sealed and QLS monitoring begun, usually within 2–5 min of collection. Fibrils were prepared by dissolving 800 μg of Aβ(1–40) in 200 μl of water and then diluting with an equal volume of 0.2 m Tris-HCl, pH 7.4, containing 0.04% (w/v) sodium azide. This solution was incubated for 5 days at 37 °C, then thoroughly mixed, diluted with an equal volume of water, and an aliquot examined by EM to confirm the presence of mature fibrils. The remaining solution was serially diluted to yield concentrations of approximately 500, 250, 125, 62, 31, and 16 μg/ml in 0.05 m Tris-HCl, pH 7.4. Standards were used immediately or stored at −20 °C until required. The concentrations of the standards were determined by AAA. Congo red binding was assessed essentially as described by Klunk et al. (32Klunk W.E. Pettegrew J.W. Abraham D.J. J. Histochem. Cytochem. 1989; 37: 1273-1281Crossref PubMed Scopus (568) Google Scholar), but with volumes adjusted to perform the assay in a microtiter plate. Briefly, 225 μl of 20 μm Congo red in 20 mmpotassium phosphate, pH 7.4, containing 0.15 m sodium chloride, was added to 25 μl of sample, mixed, and incubated for 30 min at room temperature. The absorbance of the resulting solutions was then measured at 480 and 540 nm using a Molecular Devices Thermo Max microplate reader. All samples were assessed in triplicate and the amount of Congo red bound (Cb) calculated using the formula Cb (nm) = [(A540/25,295) − (A480/46,306)] × 103. The Cb values shown were obtained after subtraction of Cb values for buffer alone. Thioflavin T (ThT) binding was assessed as described by Naiki and Nakakuki (33Naiki H. Nakakuki K. Lab. Invest. 1996; 74: 374-383PubMed Google Scholar). 100 μl of sample was added to a 1-cm path length cuvette containing 800 μl of water and 1 ml of 100 mm glycine-NaOH, pH 8.5. The reaction was then initiated by the addition of 50 μl of 100 μm ThT in water and the solution vortexed briefly. Fluorescence was measured after 90, 100, 110, and 120 s. Measurements were made using a Perkin-Elmer LS-5B Luminescence spectrometer with excitation and emission wavelengths of 446 nm (slit width = 5 nm) and 490 nm (slit width = 10 nm), respectively. Each sample and standard was done in triplicate. Solutions of protofibrils or LMW Aβ isolated by SEC were placed into 1-mm path length quartz cuvettes (Hellma, Forest Hills, NY) and spectra obtained from ∼195–250 nm at room temperature using an Aviv 62A DS spectropolarimeter. Raw data were manipulated by smoothing and subtraction of buffer spectra, according to the manufacturer's instructions. Deconvolution of the resulting spectra was achieved using the program CDANAL (34Perczel A. Park K. Fasman G.D. Anal. Biochem. 1992; 203: 83-93Crossref PubMed Scopus (421) Google Scholar) and the Brahms and Brahms reference library (35Brahms S. Brahms J. J. Mol. Biol. 1980; 138: 149-178Crossref PubMed Scopus (712) Google Scholar). The relative amounts of random coil, α-helix, β-sheet, and β-turn in each sample were determined from the normalized contribution of each secondary structure element function to the observed spectrum following curve fitting. LMW Aβ and protofibrils were prepared by SEC. Briefly, 1 mg of peptide was dissolved in 250 μl of water containing 0.01% (v/v) phenol red, diluted with an equal volume of 0.2m Tris-HCl, pH 7.4, then incubated at room temperature for 2 days. Solutions were then centrifuged at 16,000 × g for 5 min and 400–440 μl of the supernate fractionated on a Superdex 75 column eluted with 5 mm Tris-HCl, pH 7.4, 70 mm NaCl, at 0.5 ml/min. The elution solvent was chosen empirically after preliminary experiments showed that 0.05m Tris buffer was toxic to cultured neurons and that LMW Aβ and protofibril yields were unacceptably low in the absence of salt. The Tris/NaCl system produced chromatograms indistinguishable from those seen using 0.05 m Tris-HCl, pH 7.4. In addition, the morphology and hydrodynamic radii of protofibrils prepared by this method were essentially the same as those obtained using 0.05m Tris buffer. Peptides were detected by UV absorbance at 254 nm and 450-μl fractions were collected during elution of the LMW Aβ and protofibril peaks. Fractions used for studies of biological activity were also subjected to AAA and EM. In attempting to produce fibrils, we found that when Aβ(1–40) (from a variety of sources) was dissolved at >1 mg/ml in water, it produced a solution whose pH (<3) could not be adjusted properly with 5 mm Tris buffer. To overcome this problem and facilitate monitoring of the pH under sterile conditions, peptide was suspended initially at ∼3.2 mg/ml in 1 mm NaOH, containing 0.01% (v/v) phenol red. 10 mm NaOH then was added at the empirically determined ratio of 200 μl/mg of peptide. This ratio varied slightly among different peptide lots. Finally, the solution was diluted sequentially with 100 mm Tris-HCl, pH 7.4, containing 1.4 m NaCl, and water to give a concentration of ∼1.6 mg/ml Aβ(1–40) in 5 mm Tris-HCl, pH 7.4, containing 70 mm NaCl. These solutions were incubated for 2 days at 37 °C, and then used. This procedure consistently produced solutions of amyloid fibrils which could be sedimented readily by brief centrifugation (16,000 × g, 5 min) and which were indistinguishable from those formed by incubation in 50 mmTris-HCl, pH 7.4. Rat primary cortical neurons were prepared according to Hartley et al. (36Hartley D.M. Kurth M.C. Bjerkness L. Weiss J.H. Choi D.W. J. Neurosci. 1993; 13: 1993-2000Crossref PubMed Google Scholar), with slight modifications. Briefly, brain cells were isolated from the neocortex of E15-17 rat embryos and plated onto poly-l-lysine coated 96-well plates at a density of 2 × 104 cells/well in Dulbecco's minimal essential medium containing 5% (v/v) bovine calf serum, 10% (v/v) Ham's F-12, HEPES (20 mm),l-glutamine (2 mm), and penicillin-streptomycin (500 units/ml and 500 μg/ml, respectively). Cultures were used 2–4 days after plating. Cell-mediated reduction of 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) was assessed according to the method of Hansen et al. (37Hansen M.B. Nielsen S.E. Berg K. J. Immunol. Methods. 1989; 119: 203-210Crossref PubMed Scopus (3343) Google Scholar). Freshly isolated protofibrils or LMW Aβ fractions were mixed with concentrated stock solutions of individual tissue culture components to produce a final solution containing 10 mm glucose, 500 units/ml penicillin, 500 μg/ml streptomycin, 20 mm HEPES, and 26 mm NaCO3, all in 1 × minimal essential medium. Peptide concentrations were determined prior to this supplementation. Fibril standards were prepared in a similar fashion to yield nominal final peptide concentrations of 5, 10, and 15 μm. Cells were incubated either in 50 μl of medium without Aβ or in 50 μl containing fibrillar Aβ, protofibrils, or LMW Aβ. After 2 h, 10 μl of 2.5 mg/ml MTT was added to each well and the incubation continued for a further 3 h. Cells were then solubilized in 200 μl of 20% (w/v) SDS in 50% (v/v)N,N′-dimethylformamide, 25 mm HCl, 2% (v/v) glacial acetic acid, pH 4.7, by overnight incubation at 37 °C. Levels of reduced MTT were determined by measuring the difference in absorbance at 595 and 650 nm using a Molecular Devices Thermo Max microplate reader. The effects of treatments were compared with controls by using the one-way analysis of variance Tukey test. No reduction of MTT was observed in fibril controls (even at a concentration of ∼30 μm) in the absence of cells. Previous studies of protofibril morphology utilizing negative staining and EM (26Walsh D.M. Lomakin A. Benedek G.B. Condron M.M. Teplow D.B. J. Biol. Chem. 1997; 272: 22364-22372Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (948) Google Scholar), or AFM (22Harper J.D. Wong S.S. Lieber C.M. Lansbury P.T. Chem. Biol. 1997; 4: 119-125Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (626) Google Scholar, 27Harper J.D. Lieber C.M. Lansbury P.T. Chem. Biol. 1997; 4: 951-959Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (414) Google Scholar), required avid macromolecule adherence to the sample support for their success. If certain structures were washed away during preparation of the supports, potentially important species would not be observed. To address this issue, and to further our efforts at understanding the gross morphology of protofibrils, we performed electron microscopic examination of protofibrils prepared by rotatory shadowing. In this procedure, which involves no washing, a thin, uniform film of sample is sprayed onto a mica support from which shadow casts are then generated and examined. Both shadowed and negatively stained protofibrils appeared as flexible rods of length up to ∼200 nm