Fibrillogenesis of the amyloid β-protein (Aβ) is a seminal pathogenetic event in Alzheimer's disease. Inhibiting fibrillogenesis is thus one approach toward disease therapy. Rational design of fibrillogenesis inhibitors requires elucidation of the stages and kinetics of Aβ fibrillogenesis. We report results of studies designed to examine the initial stages of Aβ oligomerization. Size exclusion chromatography, quasielastic light scattering spectroscopy, and electron microscopy were used to characterize fibrillogenesis intermediates. After dissolution in 0.1 m Tris-HCl, pH 7.4, and removal of pre-existent seeds, Aβ chromatographed almost exclusively as a single peak. The molecules composing the peak had average hydrodynamic radii of 1.8 ± 0.2 nm, consistent with the predicted size of dimeric Aβ. Over time, an additional peak, with a molecular weight >100,000, appeared. This peak contained predominantly curved fibrils, 6–8 nm in diameter and <200 nm in length, which we have termed “protofibrils.” The kinetics of protofibril formation and disappearance are consistent with protofibrils being intermediates in the evolution of amyloid fibers. Protofibrils appeared during the polymerization of Aβ-(1–40), Aβ-(1–42), and Aβ-(1–40)-Gln22, peptides associated with both sporadic and inherited forms of Alzheimer's disease, suggesting that protofibril formation may be a general phenomenon in Aβ fibrillogenesis. If so, protofibrils could be attractive targets for fibrillogenesis inhibitors. Fibrillogenesis of the amyloid β-protein (Aβ) is a seminal pathogenetic event in Alzheimer's disease. Inhibiting fibrillogenesis is thus one approach toward disease therapy. Rational design of fibrillogenesis inhibitors requires elucidation of the stages and kinetics of Aβ fibrillogenesis. We report results of studies designed to examine the initial stages of Aβ oligomerization. Size exclusion chromatography, quasielastic light scattering spectroscopy, and electron microscopy were used to characterize fibrillogenesis intermediates. After dissolution in 0.1 m Tris-HCl, pH 7.4, and removal of pre-existent seeds, Aβ chromatographed almost exclusively as a single peak. The molecules composing the peak had average hydrodynamic radii of 1.8 ± 0.2 nm, consistent with the predicted size of dimeric Aβ. Over time, an additional peak, with a molecular weight >100,000, appeared. This peak contained predominantly curved fibrils, 6–8 nm in diameter and <200 nm in length, which we have termed “protofibrils.” The kinetics of protofibril formation and disappearance are consistent with protofibrils being intermediates in the evolution of amyloid fibers. Protofibrils appeared during the polymerization of Aβ-(1–40), Aβ-(1–42), and Aβ-(1–40)-Gln22, peptides associated with both sporadic and inherited forms of Alzheimer's disease, suggesting that protofibril formation may be a general phenomenon in Aβ fibrillogenesis. If so, protofibrils could be attractive targets for fibrillogenesis inhibitors. Fibrillar amyloid plaques in the cerebral parenchyma and vasculature are a cardinal neuropathologic feature of Alzheimer's disease (AD) 1The abbreviations used are: AD, Alzheimer's disease; Aβ, amyloid β-protein; QLS, quasielastic light scattering spectroscopy; PAGE, polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis; SEC, size exclusion chromatography; HPLC, high pressure liquid chromatography; HFIP, 1,1,1,3,3,3-hexafluoro-2-propanol; RIA, radioimmunoassay; Tricine,N-[2-hydroxy-1,1-bis(hydroxymethyl)ethyl]glycine. (1Selkoe D.J. Neuron. 1991; 6: 487-498Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (2294) Google Scholar). Plaques are composed predominantly of insoluble fibers of the amyloid β-protein (Aβ) (2Glenner G.G. Wong C.W. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 1984; 120: 885-890Crossref PubMed Scopus (4434) Google Scholar). Aβ is a normal component of the plasma and cerebrospinal fluid, occurring as a soluble 40- or 42-residue peptide (3Seubert P. Vigo-Pelfrey C. Esch F. Lee M. Dovey H. Davis D. Sinha S. Schlossmacher M.G. Whaley J. Swindlehurst C. McCormack R. Wolfert R. Selkoe D.J. Lieberburg I. Schenk D. Nature. 1992; 359: 325-327Crossref PubMed Scopus (1666) Google Scholar, 4Busciglio J. Gabuzda D.H. Matsudaira P. Yankner B.A. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 1993; 90: 2092-2096Crossref PubMed Scopus (550) Google Scholar). Thus, a central question in the etiology of AD is the mechanism(s) by which these soluble Aβ molecules are converted into plaque-associated fibers (5Selkoe D.J. J. Neuropathol. Exp. Neurol. 1994; 53: 438-447Crossref PubMed Scopus (715) Google Scholar). This question is particularly relevant because Aβ fibers, unlike nonfibrillar Aβ, are neurotoxic in vitro and are associated with damaged neuropil in vivo(6Yankner B.A. Nat. Med. 1996; 2: 850-852Crossref PubMed Scopus (109) Google Scholar). These observations suggest that inhibiting fiber formation would be an effective approach toward AD therapy. However, if these efforts are to succeed, fiber formation must be understood at the molecular level. Aβ fibrillogenesis is a nucleation-dependent polymerization process (7Jarrett J.T. Lansbury Jr., P.T. Cell. 1993; 73: 1055-1058Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (1981) Google Scholar, 8Lomakin A. Chung D.S. Benedek G.B. Kirschner D.A. Teplow D.B. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 1996; 93: 1125-1129Crossref PubMed Scopus (744) Google Scholar). The kinetics of this type of process is controlled by two key parameters, nucleation rate and elongation rate. Past studies of the kinetics of Aβ fibrillogenesis, utilizing techniques including turbidity, sedimentation, and thioflavine T binding, could only provide information on the appearance of high molecular weight aggregates (7Jarrett J.T. Lansbury Jr., P.T. Cell. 1993; 73: 1055-1058Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (1981) Google Scholar, 9LeVine III, H. Protein Sci. 1993; 2: 404-410Crossref PubMed Scopus (2004) Google Scholar) or the disappearance of soluble peptide (10Clements A. Walsh D.M. Williams C.H. Allsop D. Neurosci. Lett. 1993; 161: 17-20Crossref PubMed Scopus (81) Google Scholar, 11Clements A. Allsop D. Walsh D.M. Williams C.H. J. Neurochem. 1996; 66: 740-747Crossref PubMed Scopus (112) Google Scholar, 12Mantyh P.W. Ghilardi J.R. Rogers S. DeMaster E. Allen C.J. Stimson E.R. Maggio J.E. J. Neurochem. 1993; 61: 1171-1174Crossref PubMed Scopus (438) Google Scholar, 13Snyder S.W. Ladror U.S. Wade W.S. Wang G.T. Barrett L.W. Matayoshi E.D. Huffaker H.J. Krafft G.A. Holzman T.F. Biophys. J. 1994; 67: 1216-1228Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (353) Google Scholar). Neither rate constants nor structures of fibrillogenesis intermediates could be determined by these approaches. In contrast, the technique of quasielastic light scattering spectroscopy (QLS) is particularly well suited for resolving individual stages of polymerization processes and for examining polymerization kinetics (14Cohen R.J. Benedek G.B. Immunochemistry. 1975; 12: 349-351Crossref PubMed Scopus (44) Google Scholar). QLS was used initially to monitor late stages of Aβ fibrillogenesis (15Tomski S.J. Murphy R.M. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 1992; 294: 630-638Crossref PubMed Scopus (139) Google Scholar, 16Shen C.-L. Scott G.L. Merchant F. Murphy R.M. Biophys. J. 1993; 65: 2383-2395Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (88) Google Scholar). Recently, however, a model system was developed for the highly reproducible growth of Aβ fibers (8Lomakin A. Chung D.S. Benedek G.B. Kirschner D.A. Teplow D.B. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 1996; 93: 1125-1129Crossref PubMed Scopus (744) Google Scholar). This allowed QLS monitoring of polymer size during all phases of fibrillogenesis and determination of the rates of Aβ fibril nucleation and elongation (8Lomakin A. Chung D.S. Benedek G.B. Kirschner D.A. Teplow D.B. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 1996; 93: 1125-1129Crossref PubMed Scopus (744) Google Scholar). The QLS approach is less useful for studying small structures, such as Aβ monomers and oligomers, when they exist in mixtures with larger polymers. Because these prefibrillar intermediates are potential targets for fibrillogenesis inhibitors, it is important to characterize them. One method for doing so is SDS-PAGE (17Hilbich C. Kisters-Woike B. Reed J. Masters C. Beyreuther K. J. Mol. Biol. 1991; 218: 149-163Crossref PubMed Scopus (564) Google Scholar, 18Burdick D. Soreghan B. Kwon M. Kosmoski J. Knauer M. Henschen A. Yates J. Cotman C. Glabe C. J. Biol. Chem. 1992; 267: 546-554Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Google Scholar, 19Pike C.J. Burdick D. Walencewicz A.J. Glabe C.G. Cotman C.W. J. Neurosci. 1993; 13: 1676-1687Crossref PubMed Google Scholar, 20Soreghan B. Kosmoski J. Glabe C. J. Biol. Chem. 1994; 269: 28551-28554Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Google Scholar). However, since many Aβ polymers are SDS-labile, interpreting SDS-PAGE studies of Aβ polymerization is problematic. Size exclusion chromatography (SEC) is an attractive alternative to SDS-PAGE because it fractionates on the basis of molecular weight and is performed using nondenaturing and nondisaggregating buffers. SEC has been used to study the aggregation state of Aβ in solution (20Soreghan B. Kosmoski J. Glabe C. J. Biol. Chem. 1994; 269: 28551-28554Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Google Scholar, 21Barrow C.J. Yasuda A. Kenny P.T.M. Zagorski M. J. Mol. Biol. 1992; 225: 1075-1093Crossref PubMed Scopus (628) Google Scholar, 22Bush A.I. Pettingell Jr., W.H. de Paradis M. Tanzi R.E. J. Biol. Chem. 1994; 269: 12152-12158Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Google Scholar, 23Kametani F. Tanaka K. Tokuda T. Allsop D. Brain Res. 1995; 703: 237-241Crossref PubMed Scopus (13) Google Scholar), but its potential in kinetic studies has not been exploited. We report here the use of SEC, coupled with QLS and electron microscopy, to characterize the temporal evolution and structures of oligomeric intermediates in the pathway of Aβ fibrillogenesis. Chemicals were obtained from Sigma and, unless otherwise stated, were of the highest purity available. Solvents were HPLC grade and were obtained from Fisher. Water was double-distilled and deionized using a Milli-Q system (Millipore Corp., Bedford, MA). Peptides were synthesized as described by Lomakin et al. (8Lomakin A. Chung D.S. Benedek G.B. Kirschner D.A. Teplow D.B. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 1996; 93: 1125-1129Crossref PubMed Scopus (744) Google Scholar). Crude Aβ-(1–40) was purified by reverse phase HPLC using a Vydac phenyl column (22 × 250 mm) and a linear gradient of 28–56% B over 50 min (A: 0.1% (v/v) trifluoroacetic acid; B: 70% (v/v) acetonitrile (CH3CN), 0.09% (v/v) trifluoroacetic acid) at a flow rate of 20 ml/min. Aβ-(1–42) was purified using a PLRP-S column (25 × 150 mm) and a linear gradient of 20–60% B over 80 min (A: 50 mm Tris-HCl, pH 9.1; B: 50 mm Tris-HCl, pH 9.1, containing 54% (v/v) CH3CN and 6% (v/v) 2-propanol) at a flow rate of 15 ml/min (24Naslund J. Karlstrom A.R. Tjernberg L.O. Schierhorn A. Terenius L. Nordstedt C. J. Neurochem. 1996; 67: 294-301Crossref PubMed Scopus (30) Google Scholar). Following purification, Aβ-(1–42) was dialyzed against 0.15m ammonium hydroxide in 40% (v/v) CH3CN, lyophilized, and converted to its trifluoroacetic acid salt by dissolution in 100% trifluoroacetic acid. Peptide mass, purity, and quantity were determined by a combination of matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry, analytical HPLC, and quantitative amino acid analysis, respectively. Purified peptides were aliquoted, lyophilized, and stored at−20 °C until used. Aβ-(40–1) was generously provided by Dr. Dennis Selkoe (Brigham & Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School). A description of columns and buffers is found in Table I. Superdex, Superose and TSK columns were attached to a Rainin HPLC system consisting of a HPXL pump, a Rheodyne 7161 injector, and a Dynamax UV-1 detector. Columns were eluted at a flow rate of 0.5 ml/min and peptides detected by UV absorbance at 254 nm. Sephadex G-50 (superfine) media were prepared using either 1 × 30 cm or 1 × 50 cm borosilicate Econo-columns (Bio-Rad, Hercules, CA) and eluted at 0.17 ml/min using an LKB Microperpex S peristaltic pump. Peptides were detected by UV absorbance at 254 nm using a Pharmacia UV-1 single path monitor. Each experiment was performed at least two times. Pre-packed columns were washed with 50% (v/v) formic acid between experiments. Sephadex columns were prepared from fresh resin prior to each experiment.Table IChromatographic properties of Aβ-(1–40)ColumnSeparation range (kDa)Elution buffer1-aMPD, 2-methyl-2,4-pentanediol; PBS, phosphate-buffered saline; TBS, Tris-buffered saline; TBSE, 0.02 m Tris-HCl, pH 7.4, containing 0.1 m NaCl and 50 μmEDTA.Aβ MrVoid peakCorrelation coefficient (r 2)Superdex 75 (1 × 30 cm)3 –70PBS10,000−0.98PBS, 20% sucrose10,500−0.98PBS, 20% MPD9,000−0.96PBS, 20% ethylene glycol8,000±0.98PBS, 50% ethylene glycol6,000±0.980.1 m Tris-HCl, pH 7.415,000+0.81Superdex 200 (1 × 30 cm)10 –6000.1 m Tris-HCl, pH 7.414,000+0.77Superose 12 (1 × 30 cm)1 –3000.1 m Tris-HCl, pH 7.415,000+0.79PBS12,000±0.92TSK G2000sw (0.7 × 30 cm)5 –1000.1% trifluoroacetic acid8,000−0.85PBS18,000±0.58G50sf (1 × 28 cm)1.5 –300.1 mTris-HCl, pH 7.49,000−0.98G50sf (1 × 28 cm)TBS8,000−1.0G50sf (1 × 47 cm)TBSE7,500−0.98G50sf (1 × 47 cm)50 mm ammonium acetate, pH 7.45,000−0.98Aβ-(1–40) was chromatographed on five different size exclusion media, as described under “Experimental Procedures.” For each study, the appropriate column was equilibrated with at least three column volumes of elution buffer and then calibrated with five molecular weight standards: avian ovalbumin (44,000); equine myoglobin (17,000); equine cytochrome C (12,384); bovine aprotinin (6,500); and vitamin B12 (1,350). Standard curves were constructed by regression analysis and used to determine the molecular weights of analytes. Each condition yielded one peak, which decreased in size over 24 h. A small void peak appeared after 24 h of incubation in some experiments.1-a MPD, 2-methyl-2,4-pentanediol; PBS, phosphate-buffered saline; TBS, Tris-buffered saline; TBSE, 0.02 m Tris-HCl, pH 7.4, containing 0.1 m NaCl and 50 μmEDTA. Open table in a new tab Aβ-(1–40) was chromatographed on five different size exclusion media, as described under “Experimental Procedures.” For each study, the appropriate column was equilibrated with at least three column volumes of elution buffer and then calibrated with five molecular weight standards: avian ovalbumin (44,000); equine myoglobin (17,000); equine cytochrome C (12,384); bovine aprotinin (6,500); and vitamin B12 (1,350). Standard curves were constructed by regression analysis and used to determine the molecular weights of analytes. Each condition yielded one peak, which decreased in size over 24 h. A small void peak appeared after 24 h of incubation in some experiments. 400 μg of Aβ-(1–40) were dissolved in 200 μl of water and then vortexed briefly. 200 μl of 2 × buffer were then added, and the sample was vortexed again. Following centrifugation (17,000 × g, 3 min), 100 μl of the supernatant was chromatographed. For kinetic analyses, samples were incubated at room temperature for various periods prior to centrifugation. For quasielastic light scattering spectroscopy, electron microscopy, and gel electrophoresis, Aβ-(1–40) was dissolved at a concentration of 2 mg/ml (0.46 mm), incubated at room temperature for 48 h, and then chromatographed as above. Similarly, Aβ-(1–40)-Gln22 and Aβ-(1–42) were dissolved at concentrations of 1 mg/ml (0.23 and 0.22 mm, respectively) and incubated at room temperature for 6 h, and then 300 μl of each were chromatographed as above. Peak fractions of 50–200-μl volume were collected and analyzed. Disaggregation experiments were performed by dissolving 800 μg of Aβ-(1–40) in 160 μl of 1,1,1,3,3,3-hexafluoro-2-propanol (HFIP) and incubating at room temperature for 10 min. The HFIP was removed by evaporation under a gentle stream of argon, leaving a slightly yellow film that was resuspended in 80 μl of dimethyl sulfoxide (Me2SO) and sonicated for 30 min. The solution was then filtered through an Anotop 10 Plus filter (20 nm, Whatman Inc., Clifton, NJ) and diluted 1:9 (v/v) with 0.1 m Tris-HCl, pH 7.4, containing 0.02% (w/v) sodium azide (Tris buffer). After centrifugation (17,000 × g, 3 min), 100 μl of supernatant were injected onto a Superdex 75 column. The remainder of the solution was incubated at room temperature and sampled at 1, 4, 8, and 24 h. To search for low abundance intermediates, radioiodinated Aβ-(1–40) (125I-Aβ, ∼2000 Ci/mmol) was prepared according to Maggio et al.(25Maggio J.E. Stimson E.R. Ghilardi J.R. Allen C.J. Dahl C.E. Whitcomb D.C. Vigna S.R. Vinters H.V. Labenski M.E. Mantyh P.W. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 1992; 89: 5462-5466Crossref PubMed Scopus (205) Google Scholar) at a final concentration of 100 pm in Tris buffer containing 0.5% (v/v) Me2SO. After incubation at room temperature for 0, 8, or 24 h, samples were centrifuged (17,000 × g, 3 min), and 100-μl aliquots were injected onto a Superdex 75 column. 0.5-ml fractions were collected, and their radioactivity was determined by scintillation counting. To examine the effect of varying Aβ concentration, 3 μl of appropriately diluted Aβ-(1–40) were added to 597 μl of Tris buffer containing 100 pm125I-Aβ, to yield final Aβ concentrations of 1 × 10−10, 1 × 10−9, 1 × 10−7, 1 × 10−5, and 2.3 × 10−4m. Samples were then incubated and analyzed as above. A RIA procedure was used to detect trace levels of oligomeric fibril intermediates. Aβ-(1–40) was dissolved in HFIP, lyophilized, dissolved to a suitable concentration in Me2SO, and then diluted 1:200 (v/v) with 0.1 m Tris buffer. Final Aβ concentrations were 1 × 10−7, 1 × 10−6, 1 × 10−5, and 1 × 10−4m. Samples were then incubated and chromatographed as in the radiotracer experiments. Fractions were frozen at −20 °C until assayed. Aβ-(1–40) content in each fraction was determined by RIA (26Esler W.P. Stimson E.R. Jennings J.M. Ghilardi J.R. Mantyh P.W. Maggio J.E. J. Neurochem. 1996; 66: 723-732Crossref PubMed Scopus (126) Google Scholar). Fractions from SEC were collected directly into cuvettes and analyzed within 1 min of elution. QLS was carried out essentially as described (8Lomakin A. Chung D.S. Benedek G.B. Kirschner D.A. Teplow D.B. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 1996; 93: 1125-1129Crossref PubMed Scopus (744) Google Scholar). Measurements were performed at 25 °C using a Langley Ford model 1097 autocorrelator and Coherent argon ion lasers (model Innova 90 or Innova 90-plus) operated at 514 nm. 10 μl of sample were applied to carbon-coated Formvar grids (Electron Microscopy Sciences, Washington, PA) and incubated for 60 s. The droplet was then displaced with an equal volume of 0.5% (v/v) glutaraldehyde solution and incubated for an additional 60 s. The grid then was washed with four or five drops of water and wicked dry. Finally, the peptide was stained with 10 μl of 2% (w/v) uranyl acetate solution (Ted Pella, Inc., Redding, CA) for 2 min. This solution was wicked off, and the grid was air-dried. Samples were examined using a JEOL CX100 electron microscope. To examine insoluble material, pellets of Aβ were suspended in a small volume of buffer and prepared as above. SDS-PAGE was carried out on 16.5% Tricine gels as described by Schagger and Von Jagow (27Schagger H. Von Jagow G. Anal. Biochem. 1987; 166: 368-379Crossref PubMed Scopus (11027) Google Scholar). Aliquots of each chromatographic fraction (20 μl) were mixed with 3 × SDS sample buffer (10 μl) and boiled for 5 min immediately prior to electrophoresis. Gels were silver-stained using the Bio-Rad silver stain kit and photographed. To monitor oligomerization of Aβ, an analytical method is necessary that can resolve monomeric Aβ and its oligomers under nondenaturing, nondisaggregating conditions. We reasoned that SEC would be appropriate for this purpose. Initial analysis of presumably monomeric Aβ revealed a single peak with a molecular weight of 10,000 (Table I). This unexpectedly high molecular weight suggested that Aβ might not be monomeric or was partially excluded from the column matrix, indicating a nonideal analyte-matrix interaction. Because accurate molecular weight determination was critical for the proper interpretation of our experiments, we determined whether the chromatographic behavior of Aβ varied depending on column matrix or elution conditions (Table I). When Aβ-(1–40) from the same peptide lot was dissolved in phosphate-buffered saline and chromatographed on Superdex 75 (dextran-agarose), Superose 12 (agarose), or TSK (silica) matrices, the relative molecular weight of Aβ varied from 10,000 to 18,000. Similarly, when Aβ-(1–40) was dissolved in 0.1 mTris-HCl, pH 7.4, and then analyzed, molecular weights of 9,000–15,000 were observed. Other solvent conditions resulted inMr values ranging from 5,000 to 10,500. One explanation for the variations in Mr was nonideal chromatographic behavior of Aβ. This was confirmed in experiments in which the elution buffer was modified by the addition of ethylene glycol, an agent used to inhibit solute-column interactions. Under these conditions, a concentration-dependent decrease in Aβ Mr from 10,000 to 6,000 was seen. We also found that Mr values varied depending on the calibration standards used. Thus, for consistency, all columns were calibrated using the same five standards. In each experiment, Aβ-(1–40) chromatographed as a single peak in the included volume of the column, but because of its nonideal behavior, the oligomerization state of Aβ within these peaks was unclear. If noncovalent multimers composed these peaks, then treating Aβ with strong denaturants or solvents prior to chromatography might disaggregate these complexes and reduce the Mr. In fact, pretreatment of Aβ with SDS-PAGE sample buffer, Me2SO, HFIP, or 90% formic acid, had no effect on itsMr. In addition, Aβ-(40–1), the “reverse” peptide of Aβ-(1–40) and one that does not polymerize readily, co-eluted with Aβ-(1–40) on the Superdex 75/Tris-HCl system (data not shown). A time-dependent decrease in the magnitude of the gel-included peak was observed under all conditions examined (data not shown). In the Superdex 75/Tris-HCl system, this decrease was accompanied by the appearance of a new peak in the void volume of the column (Fig. 1). For linear polymers such as dextran, this would be consistent with a molecular weight in excess of 30,000. To better estimate the size of the aggregates in this peak, chromatography was also performed on Superdex 200 and Superose 12 columns, which have exclusion limits (for dextrans) of ∼100 kDa. A peak was observed in the void volume of these columns as well, suggesting that the Aβ multimers had molecular masses in excess of 100 kDa, or that they too behaved anomalously on SEC. Experiments using Aβ-(1–42) yielded essentially identical results (data not shown). To estimate the actual sizes of Aβ particles in the peaks obtained by SEC, QLS was used to measure the average diffusion coefficient of the particles. Particle size is expressed as the radius of a sphere with an identical diffusion coefficient. This quantity is termed the hydrodynamic radius (RH) (for a review, see Ref. 28Pecora R. Dynamic Light Scattering: Applications of Photon Correlation Spectroscopy.in: Pecora R. Plenum Press, New York, NY1985Crossref Google Scholar) and is conceptually equivalent to a Stoke's radius in gel permeation chromatography. For spherical particles, RH = r, wherer is the geometric radius. For a fibril,RH depends on the length, diameter, and flexibility of the particle. RH is always less than the radius of the sphere circumscribed around the particle. Immediately after dissolution in Tris-HCl and centrifugation (17,000 × g, 3 min), but prior to SEC, soluble Aβ-(1–40) had an average RH of ∼40–200 nm (Fig. 2 A). Because scattering intensity is proportional to molecular weight, monomers and small oligomers can be difficult to detect in the presence of larger polymers and aggregates. However, by fractionating the Aβ mixture using SEC, we observed a gel-included fraction, with an extrapolated molecular weight of 15,000, which had an average RH of 1.8 ± 0.2 nm (Fig. 2 B). Geometric considerations predict that a 4,331-Da peptide in dimeric form will have aRH = 1.5–2.1 nm. For comparison, QLS analysis of aprotinin (6,500 Da) fractionated by SEC yielded an averageRH of 1.6 ± 0.6 nm (Fig. 2 C). These data argue that Aβ existed as a dimer 2For simplicity, Aβ within the gel-included peak will be referred to as “dimeric.” However, the QLS data alone do not eliminate the possibility that Aβ within this peak is monomeric. in the gel-included fraction, not as a trimer or tetramer as suggested by SEC. We next sought to determine the size(s) of the Aβ oligomers in the gel-excluded fraction. To produce sufficient material for analysis, Aβ-(1–40) was incubated for 48 h prior to chromatography. QLS analysis of the pre-SEC supernatant (17,000 × g) revealed a broad distribution of particles sizes (range 4 to >100 nm) (Fig. 2 E). Comparison of this distribution with that obtained from Aβ immediately after dissolution (Fig. 2 A) shows that particles of intermediate size form during fibrillogenesis. Dimers were not resolved clearly in this experiment due to the predominance of larger Aβ oligomers/polymers, as discussed above. QLS analysis of the gel-excluded peak showed that the majority of intermediate particles ranged in size from ∼10 to 50 nm (Fig. 2 F). For a solution of noninteracting rods with diameters of 8 nm, this range corresponds to lengths of 30–500 nm. These lengths would be significantly smaller if rod-rod interactions were occurring. On the other hand, if the rods were flexible, the lengths would be even larger. Taken together, our SEC and QLS data indicate that the gel-included peak contained dimeric Aβ, the gel-excluded peak contained a distribution of oligomers, and the pellet obtained prior to chromatography was composed of higher molecular weight polymers and aggregates. To determine the morphology of the Aβ species observed in the SEC experiments, electron microscopy was performed. For both Aβ-(1–40) and Aβ-(1–42), no structures were detected in the gel-included fractions, while the 17,000 ×g pellets obtained prior to chromatography contained a mesh of fibers 6–10 nm in diameter (Fig. 3,A and B). These fibers were indistinguishable from those found in senile plaques (29Kirschner D.A. Abraham C. Selkoe D.J. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 1986; 83: 503-507Crossref PubMed Scopus (500) Google Scholar). In addition, particularly in the case of Aβ-(1–42), short fibrils were seen associated with the longer fibers. Generally, one end of each fibril appeared to adhere to the side of a fiber, while the other end was free. Similar fibrils were found in the void volume peaks, where they appeared as short, curly fibrils 6–10 nm in diameter and 5–160 nm in length, on average (Fig. 3, C and D). We have termed these structures “protofibrils” to distinguish them from the mature, amyloid-type fibers found in the pellets. Low molecular weight oligomers (larger than dimers) were not detected in the prior SEC experiments. Oligomerization could be thermodynamically unfavorable or be suppressed kinetically due to rapid consumption of precursor by growing fibrils. Fibril formation would be accelerated by the presence of pre-existing aggregates (seeds) in the starting material. Freshly prepared solutions of Aβ-(1–40) did, in fact, contain high molecular weight species that might act as seeds (Fig. 2 A). To determine if rapid fibril formation affected Aβ oligomerization, we sought to eliminate seeds prior to our experiments by dissolving Aβ in HFIP, lyophilizing the solution, dissolving the lyophilizate in Me2SO, and then filtering the solution through a filter containing 20-nm pores. The chromatographic behavior of peptides “deseeded” in this way did not differ from that of peptides prepared without deseeding (data not shown). An included peak was observed initially, which was replaced over time by a peak in the void volume of the column. These data suggest that formation of stable low molecular weight oligomers is a relatively unfavored process. Our results suggested that, if present, steady state levels of oligomeric fibril precursors would be extremely low, making their detection by UV absorbance difficult. For this reason, two sensitive methods were utilized to monitor Aβ polymerization: 1) radioiodinated peptide was used as a tracer in mixtures with unlabeled peptide; and 2) SEC fractions were assayed for Aβ content by RIA. Radioiodinated Aβ-(1–40) (125I-Aβ-(1–40); 100 pm final concentration) was mixed with unlabeled Aβ (1 mg/ml) in 0.1m Tris-HCl, pH 7.4, chromatographed on a Superdex 75 column, and detected in column fractions by scintillation counting. At 0 h, a single peak was observed coincident with unlabeled Aβ (Fig. 4). After incubation at room temperature for 8 or 24 h, an additional peak of radioactivity was detected in the void volume (Fig. 4; at ∼7.4 ml). The radioactivity and UV absorbance of this peak increased at the same rate over time, suggesting that the labeled and unlabeled peptides polymerized in an analogous manner. In the above experiment, given that ∼33,000 cpm of Aβ were used, oligomers representing as little as 1% of the initial protein mass could have been detected. Asymmetry in the void and dimer peaks, indicated by trailing and leading shoulders, respectively, mirrored the behavior of the unlabeled peptide (cf. Figs. 1 and 4). RIA analysis of Aβ-(1–40) SEC fractions produced using the same protocol as above yielded results similar to those presented in Fig. 4 (data not shown). Experiments were also performed at much lower Aβ concentrations by using tracer alone; however, below 10−5