Triacylglycerols from plants, familiar to most people as vegetable oils, supply 25% of dietary calories to the developed world and are increasingly a source for renewable biomaterials and fuels. Demand for vegetable oils will double by 2030, which can be met only by increased oil production. Triacylglycerol synthesis is accomplished through the coordinate action of multiple pathways in multiple subcellular compartments. Recent information has revealed an underappreciated complexity in pathways for synthesis and accumulation of this important energy-rich class of molecules. Triacylglycerols from plants, familiar to most people as vegetable oils, supply 25% of dietary calories to the developed world and are increasingly a source for renewable biomaterials and fuels. Demand for vegetable oils will double by 2030, which can be met only by increased oil production. Triacylglycerol synthesis is accomplished through the coordinate action of multiple pathways in multiple subcellular compartments. Recent information has revealed an underappreciated complexity in pathways for synthesis and accumulation of this important energy-rich class of molecules. Plant fatty acid (FA) 2The abbreviations used are: FAfatty acidTAGtriacylglycerolFASFA synthaseACPacyl carrier proteinERendoplasmic reticulumACCaseacetyl-CoA carboxylasePDHpyruvate dehydrogenaseRubiscoribulose-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenaseLACSlong-chain acyl-CoA synthetasePCphosphatidylcholineLPCATlyso-PC acyltransferaseG3Pglycerol 3-phosphatePAphosphatidic acidDAGdiacylglycerolDGATDAG acyltransferaseGPATG3P acyltransferaseLPATlysophosphatidic acid acyltransferasePAPPA phosphatasePDATphospholipid:DAG acyltransferasePDCTPC:DAG phosphocholine transferaseCPTcholinephosphotransferaseKASketoacyl-ACP synthase. synthesis differs from almost all other eukaryotes in two fundamental features. First, unlike the cytosolic location in other kingdoms, FAs for triacylglycerol (TAG) and membrane synthesis are produced in the plastid compartment of plant cells: chloroplasts in green tissues and proplastids (or leucoplasts) in non-green tissues. Second, the plant FA synthase (FAS) is a dissociable complex with separate proteins for the acyl carrier protein (ACP) and each enzyme (1Ohlrogge J.B. Jaworski J.G. Annu. Rev. Plant Physiol. Plant Mol. Biol. 1997; 48: 109-136Crossref PubMed Scopus (539) Google Scholar). After assembly of C16 and C18 acyl chains by FAS and desaturation of C18:0 to C18:1, FAs destined for TAG assembly are released from ACP in the plastid stroma by chain-terminating acyl-ACP thioesterases. Two classes of thioesterases designated FATA and FATB are responsible for hydrolysis of unsaturated and saturated acyl-ACPs, respectively, and thus determine in large part the chain length and saturated FA content of plant oils (2Jones A. Davies H.M. Voelker T.A. Plant Cell. 1995; 7: 359-371Crossref PubMed Scopus (249) Google Scholar). The FA products of FATA and FATB are activated to CoA before export to the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). The subsequent reactions of TAG synthesis belong to the so-called “eukaryotic” pathway of glycerolipid synthesis, which occurs outside the plastid (3Voelker T. Kinney A.J. Annu. Rev. Plant Physiol. Plant Mol. Biol. 2001; 52: 335-361Crossref PubMed Scopus (259) Google Scholar, 4Browse J. Somerville C. Annu. Rev. Plant Physiol. Plant Mol. Biol. 1991; 42: 467-506Crossref Scopus (528) Google Scholar). An overview of the compartmentalization of FA supply for TAG is shown in Fig. 1. fatty acid triacylglycerol FA synthase acyl carrier protein endoplasmic reticulum acetyl-CoA carboxylase pyruvate dehydrogenase ribulose-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase long-chain acyl-CoA synthetase phosphatidylcholine lyso-PC acyltransferase glycerol 3-phosphate phosphatidic acid diacylglycerol DAG acyltransferase G3P acyltransferase lysophosphatidic acid acyltransferase PA phosphatase phospholipid:DAG acyltransferase PC:DAG phosphocholine transferase cholinephosphotransferase ketoacyl-ACP synthase. FA production by plastids can limit TAG accumulation in seeds (5Bafor M. Jonsson L. Stobart A.K. Stymne S. Biochem. J. 1990; 272: 31-38Crossref PubMed Scopus (86) Google Scholar, 6Bao X. Ohlrogge J. Plant Physiol. 1999; 120: 1057-1062Crossref PubMed Scopus (69) Google Scholar), so increasing flux through FA biosynthesis may perhaps have the single greatest influence on the amount of TAG produced in plant tissues. As in bacteria, fungi, and animals, both in vitro and in vivo evidence indicates that acetyl-CoA carboxylase (ACCase) is a key rate-determining step that controls FA biosynthesis. ACCase activity is under complex regulation by light, phosphorylation, thioredoxin, PII protein, and product feedback control (7Baud S. Lepiniec L. Prog. Lipid Res. 2010; 49: 235-249Crossref PubMed Scopus (368) Google Scholar, 8Nikolau B.J. Ohlrogge J.B. Wurtele E.S. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 2003; 414: 211-222Crossref PubMed Scopus (195) Google Scholar). Of course, the flux of carbon to FA synthesis can have multiple regulatory steps, which may explain why efforts to increase seed oil by up-regulating ACCase were only modestly successful (9Roesler K. Shintani D. Savage L. Boddupalli S. Ohlrogge J. Plant Physiol. 1997; 113: 75-81Crossref PubMed Scopus (241) Google Scholar). Transcriptional regulation of the production of FA for TAG biosynthesis is most directly controlled by the WRINKLED1 transcription factor (7Baud S. Lepiniec L. Prog. Lipid Res. 2010; 49: 235-249Crossref PubMed Scopus (368) Google Scholar, 10Cernac A. Benning C. Plant J. 2004; 40: 575-585Crossref PubMed Scopus (474) Google Scholar, 11Ohto M.A. Fischer R.L. Goldberg R.B. Nakamura K. Harada J.J. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 2005; 102: 3123-3128Crossref PubMed Scopus (320) Google Scholar). Arabidopsis wri1 mutants are reduced by 80% in seed oil, and overexpression of WRI1 can increase oil content in seeds of several plants. Targets of WRI1 include ACCase, many enzymes of FAS, and key enzymes and transporters that provide pyruvate and acetyl-CoA in the plastid. Thus, WRI1 can be considered as a “master regulator” that controls transcription of almost all key enzymes that convert sucrose to FA. The importance of WRI1 was confirmed when seed oil was increased by 30% in field trials of maize that overexpress WRI1 (12Shen B. Allen W.B. Zheng P. Li C. Glassman K. Ranch J. Nubel D. Tarczynski M.C. Plant Physiol. 2010; 153: 980-987Crossref PubMed Scopus (288) Google Scholar), an increase that would be valued at $2 billion if extended to all maize production in the United States. In addition to controlling oil production in seeds, recent evidence indicates that WRI1 is likely a major factor responsible for the extremely high oil content (up to 90% of tissue weight) produced by oil palm mesocarp. Transcriptional profiling of oil palm mesocarp revealed >50-fold higher WRI1 expression levels compared with date palm mesocarp, a closely related species that contains no oil (13Bourgis F. Kilaru A. Cao X. Ngando-Ebongue G.F. Drira N. Ohlrogge J.B. Arondel V. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 2011; 108: 12527-12532Crossref PubMed Scopus (293) Google Scholar). Consistent with data in developing seeds (14Ruuska S.A. Girke T. Benning C. Ohlrogge J.B. Plant Cell. 2002; 14: 1191-1206Crossref PubMed Scopus (476) Google Scholar), genes encoding machinery for FA biosynthesis and pyruvate supply are up-regulated substantially in oil palm (an average of >13-fold) (15Tranbarger T.J. Dussert S. Joët T. Argout X. Summo M. Champion A. Cros D. Omore A. Nouy B. Morcillo F. Plant Physiol. 2011; 156: 564-584Crossref PubMed Scopus (188) Google Scholar). The direct precursor of carbon for FA synthesis is pyruvate in most oil-synthesizing tissues, and a plastidial pyruvate dehydrogenase (PDH) supplies acetyl-CoA for ACCase. Transcriptional profiling in oil palm identified subunits of PDH with 50-fold higher transcript levels compared with date palm, reinforcing transcriptional regulation as a major means of influencing FA supply for TAG synthesis (13Bourgis F. Kilaru A. Cao X. Ngando-Ebongue G.F. Drira N. Ohlrogge J.B. Arondel V. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 2011; 108: 12527-12532Crossref PubMed Scopus (293) Google Scholar). Evidence suggests that the energetics and coordination of photosynthesis, respiration, and carbon partitioning also must be taken into consideration to influence the amount of TAG accumulated in plant tissues. A strict light dependence of FA synthesis in leaf chloroplasts has been known for years (16Browse J. Roughan P.G. Slack C.R. Biochem. J. 1981; 196: 347-354Crossref PubMed Scopus (91) Google Scholar), but the relevance to TAG accumulation in oilseeds was revealed only recently at the metabolic level. Even low levels of light penetrating to developing embryos provide sufficient reductant and ATP to power FA biosynthesis (17Goffman F.D. Alonso A.P. Schwender J. Shachar-Hill Y. Ohlrogge J.B. Plant Physiol. 2005; 138: 2269-2279Crossref PubMed Scopus (134) Google Scholar). Moreover, the activity of ribulose-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase (Rubisco) in developing seeds functions not for net photosynthetic carbon fixation but rather to recycle CO2 released by PDH and other decarboxylation reactions. This action of Rubisco ultimately increases the supply of carbon for FA biosynthesis by 20% (18Allen D.K. Ohlrogge J.B. Shachar-Hill Y. Plant J. 2009; 58: 220-234Crossref PubMed Scopus (173) Google Scholar, 19Schwender J. Goffman F. Ohlrogge J.B. Shachar-Hill Y. Nature. 2004; 432: 779-782Crossref PubMed Scopus (377) Google Scholar), resulting in higher conversion efficiency of carbohydrate to oil. Other work recently pointed to additional factors that can influence FA supply from plastids for TAG synthesis. Overexpression of an Arabidopsis hemoglobin isoform appeared to improve oxygenation of developing seeds and the energetics of carbohydrate conversion to FAs (20Vigeolas H. Hühn D. Geigenberger P. Plant Physiol. 2011; 155: 1435-1444Crossref PubMed Scopus (70) Google Scholar). As a result, these transgenic plants were reported to have a 40% increase in total seed FAs compared with wild-type plants. Still other strategies to generally up-regulate lipid content in vegetative tissues rely on pathway engineering, transcriptional regulation, or altering carbon partitioning (21Benning C. Annu. Rev. Cell Dev. Biol. 2009; 25: 71-91Crossref PubMed Scopus (211) Google Scholar, 22Ohlrogge J. Chapman K. The Biochemist. 2011; 33: 34-38Crossref Google Scholar, 23Carlsson A.S. Yilmaz J.L. Green A.G. Stymne S. Hofvander P. Eur. J. Lipid Sci. Technol. 2011; 113: 812-831Crossref PubMed Scopus (163) Google Scholar). The prospect of producing substantial quantities of TAG in tissues other than seeds likely will require metabolic changes at many levels but may offer new opportunities to impact vegetable oil production worldwide (22Ohlrogge J. Chapman K. The Biochemist. 2011; 33: 34-38Crossref Google Scholar). After FAs are released in plastids, it is generally presumed that they are converted to acyl-CoAs by long-chain acyl-CoA synthetases (LACSs) in the chloroplast envelope, and it is the acyl-CoAs that are transferred to the ER for incorporation into TAG (24Harwood J.L. Biochim. Biophys. Acta. 1996; 1301: 7-56Crossref PubMed Scopus (403) Google Scholar). In vivo 18O labeling experiments confirmed that free FAs are released as intermediates (25Pollard M. Ohlrogge J. Plant Physiol. 1999; 121: 1217-1226Crossref PubMed Scopus (67) Google Scholar), and additional kinetic studies suggested channeling to LACS (26Koo A.J. Ohlrogge J.B. Pollard M. J. Biol. Chem. 2004; 279: 16101-16110Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (117) Google Scholar). There are nine LACS genes in Arabidopsis, and at least one isoform is localized to plastids (27Shockey J.M. Fulda M.S. Browse J.A. Plant Physiol. 2002; 129: 1710-1722Crossref PubMed Scopus (233) Google Scholar). However, a T-DNA disruption of this lacs9 showed no impact on lipid synthesis, suggesting functional redundancy in this protein family (28Schnurr J.A. Shockey J.M. de Boer G.J. Browse J.A. Plant Physiol. 2002; 129: 1700-1709Crossref PubMed Scopus (174) Google Scholar). Furthermore, a double knock-out of lacs9 and lacs1 (or a triple knock-out of lacs1, lacs9, and lacs8, the closest LACS9 homolog) compromised seed oil biosynthesis only modestly (29Zhao L. Katavic V. Li F. Haughn G.W. Kunst L. Plant J. 2010; 64: 1048-1058Crossref PubMed Scopus (110) Google Scholar). Even in these loss-of-function mutants, a considerable amount of acyl export from plastids supports TAG accumulation, and thus, the mechanistic nature of acyl export to the ER continues to be an intriguing puzzle. It is still unclear if the LACS active site is on the inner or outer surface of the outer chloroplast envelope and how this enzyme activity influences the availability of the acyl-CoA for ER lipid synthesis. Some have proposed direct physical contact with plastid-associated ER membranes (30Andersson M.X. Goksör M. Sandelius A.S. J. Biol. Chem. 2007; 282: 1170-1174Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (166) Google Scholar) or stromules (membrane-bound extensions from plastids) (31Hanson M.R. Sattarzadeh A. Plant Physiol. 2011; 155: 1486-1492Crossref PubMed Scopus (79) Google Scholar), which might make direct membrane contact with the ER and allow for lipid exchange. Others have suggested that lipid transfer proteins (e.g. acyl-CoA-binding proteins) might facilitate transport through the cytosol (32Jouhet J. Maréchal E. Block M.A. Prog. Lipid Res. 2007; 46: 37-55Crossref PubMed Scopus (109) Google Scholar). Alternatively, it is possible that acyl groups are incorporated into phosphatidylcholine (PC) in the plastid envelope and then transported to the ER. Results from rapid radiolabeling studies indicate that PC is the first glycerolipid labeled with newly synthesized FAs (33Bates P.D. Ohlrogge J.B. Pollard M. J. Biol. Chem. 2007; 282: 31206-31216Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (175) Google Scholar, 34Bates P.D. Durrett T.P. Ohlrogge J.B. Pollard M. Plant Physiol. 2009; 150: 55-72Crossref PubMed Scopus (256) Google Scholar). This may occur via lyso-PC acyltransferase (LPCAT) activity, which has been localized to the chloroplast envelope (35Mongrand S. Cassagne C. Bessoule J.J. Plant Physiol. 2000; 122: 845-852Crossref PubMed Scopus (53) Google Scholar, 36Andersson M.X. Kjellberg J.M. Sandelius A.S. Biochim. Biophys. Acta. 2004; 1684: 46-53Crossref PubMed Scopus (37) Google Scholar). The details of how acyl groups from plastids are exported to the ER for incorporation into TAG remain a major unresolved question, and answers in this area may help to engineer increased TAG accumulation. A number of in vitro and in vivo studies have revealed that TAG synthesis can be more complex than previously recognized. In particular, different plants use alternative pathways or combinations of pathways for the assembly of TAG (Fig. 2). The conventional Kennedy pathway for the synthesis of glycerolipids in the ER is believed to play a role in the synthesis of TAGs in most organisms. This pathway involves the sequential acylation of the sn-1- and sn-2-positions of glycerol 3-phosphate (G3P) with acyl-CoA to yield phosphatidic acid (PA). PA is hydrolyzed to form diacylglycerol (DAG), and then the sn-3-position is acylated to yield TAG. This pathway overlaps with the synthesis of membrane glycerolipids because PA and DAG are also precursors for the major membrane lipids in all cells. The acyl substrates for the acyltransferases can be supplied either directly from plastid export and/or from acyl-CoA derived from acyl exchange with PC or other glycerolipids. Of the three acyltransferases, only DAG acyltransferase (DGAT) is unique to the synthesis of TAG, and this step has received the most attention in terms of influencing the accumulation of TAG in plant tissues. Three acyl-CoA-dependent acyltransferases that cooperate to synthesize TAG have been studied in detail in recent years, with some progress toward understanding their contributions to lipid synthesis. Nine extraplastidial acyl-CoA:G3P acyltransferases (GPATs) have been identified in Arabidopsis. However, thus far, none have been demonstrated to be involved in TAG accumulation. Eight of these GPATs form a gene family that is specific to land plants. Several of these have been characterized at the genetic and biochemical levels. They transfer acyl groups to the sn-2-position and are involved in cutin or suberin biosynthesis (37Yang W. Pollard M. Li-Beisson Y. Beisson F. Feig M. Ohlrogge J. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 2010; 107: 12040-12045Crossref PubMed Scopus (150) Google Scholar) rather than membrane/storage lipid synthesis. Perhaps the best candidate for an ER-associated GPAT required for TAG biosynthesis is Arabidopsis thaliana GPAT9. This protein is not related to GPAT1–8 but shares the highest homology with the mammalian GPAT (GPAT3) that is involved directly in the synthesis of TAG in adipose tissues (38Cao J. Li J.L. Li D. Tobin J.F. Gimeno R.E. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 2006; 103: 19695-19700Crossref PubMed Scopus (176) Google Scholar). A. thaliana GPAT9 has been confirmed to localize to the ER (39Gidda S.K. Shockey J.M. Rothstein S.J. Dyer J.M. Mullen R.T. Plant Physiol. Biochem. 2009; 47: 867-879Crossref PubMed Scopus (113) Google Scholar), but its impact on TAG accumulation is not certain. For the lysophosphatidic acid acyltransferase (LPAT), five genes have been annotated in the Arabidopsis genome, and expression patterns and functions appear quite complex, with three (LPAT1, LPAT2, and LPAT3) being essential to normal plant development. Recently, overexpression of a Brassica napus LPAT isoform with homology to A. thaliana LPAT2 resulted in enhanced TAG accumulation in Arabidopsis seeds (40Maisonneuve S. Bessoule J.J. Lessire R. Delseny M. Roscoe T.J. Plant Physiol. 2010; 152: 670-684Crossref PubMed Scopus (114) Google Scholar). Genetic studies with Arabidopsis LPAT2 have been limited because female gametophyte development is disrupted in the loss-of-function mutants (41Kim H.U. Li Y. Huang A.H. Plant Cell. 2005; 17: 1073-1089Crossref PubMed Scopus (163) Google Scholar); its direct role in TAG biosynthesis in Arabidopsis should perhaps be revisited. Both Arabidopsis LPAT4 and LPAT5 give rise to alternative transcripts, mostly with variations in the 5′-UTR (The Arabidopsis Information Resource), indicating a higher order of complexity in PA synthesis than is currently appreciated. Much functional work remains to be done on the LPATs and the broader family of LPAT-like genes to understand their metabolic role(s) in acyl lipid synthesis in general and in TAG accumulation specifically. Comparatively more information is known about the terminal acyltransferases in TAG biosynthesis in plants, the DGATs. Two classes of genes encode DGATs in plants, DGAT1 and DGAT2, and these are homologous to those found in fungi and mammals (42Lung S.C. Weselake R.J. Lipids. 2006; 41: 1073-1088Crossref PubMed Scopus (278) Google Scholar). Genetic studies with mutants have confirmed that DGAT1 is required for normal TAG accumulation in oil-storing tissues of Arabidopsis (43Routaboul J.M. Benning C. Bechtold N. Caboche M. Lepiniec L. Plant Physiol. Biochem. 1999; 37: 831-840Crossref PubMed Scopus (178) Google Scholar), and its overexpression in vegetative tissues or seeds can lead to enhanced TAG accumulation (44Bouvier-Navé P. Benveniste P. Oelkers P. Sturley S.L. Schaller H. Eur. J. Biochem. 2000; 267: 85-96Crossref PubMed Scopus (223) Google Scholar, 45Andrianov V. Borisjuk N. Pogrebnyak N. Brinker A. Dixon J. Spitsin S. Flynn J. Matyszczuk P. Andryszak K. Laurelli M. Golovkin M. Koprowski H. Plant Biotechnol. J. 2010; 8: 277-287Crossref PubMed Scopus (221) Google Scholar). However, disruption of DGAT1 gene function results in only a 20–40% reduction in Arabidopsis seed oil, so other mechanisms must cooperate in the accumulation of TAG in plants. The role of Arabidopsis DGAT2 is unclear because mutants have no observable phenotype, even when crossed with dgat1 mutants. On the other hand, the function of DGAT2 appears clearer in the castor bean endosperm system, which accumulates large amounts of TAG containing more than 90% ricinoleic acid (18:1 FA hydroxylated at the Δ12-position). Castor seeds express DGAT2 at much higher levels compared with DGAT1. Castor bean DGAT2 prefers ricinoleoyl-DAG acceptors (46He X. Turner C. Chen G.Q. Lin J.T. McKeon T.A. Lipids. 2004; 39: 311-318Crossref PubMed Scopus (94) Google Scholar), and its coexpression with the castor bean hydroxylase increases ricinoleic accumulation in Arabidopsis seeds (47Burgal J. Shockey J. Lu C. Dyer J. Larson T. Graham I. Browse J. Plant Biotechnol. J. 2008; 6: 819-831Crossref PubMed Scopus (269) Google Scholar). DGAT2 also has been studied in the Tung tree (which accumulates conjugated FAs in TAG), and it is localized to a subdomain of the ER that is different from that of DGAT1, suggesting that these two proteins may cooperate to synthesize TAG in Tung seeds but in spatially distinct subcellular locations (48Shockey J.M. Gidda S.K. Chapital D.C. Kuan J.C. Dhanoa P.K. Bland J.M. Rothstein S.J. Mullen R.T. Dyer J.M. Plant Cell. 2006; 18: 2294-2313Crossref PubMed Scopus (448) Google Scholar). Although DGAT2 has been examined mostly in plant species with unusual FAs (47Burgal J. Shockey J. Lu C. Dyer J. Larson T. Graham I. Browse J. Plant Biotechnol. J. 2008; 6: 819-831Crossref PubMed Scopus (269) Google Scholar, 48Shockey J.M. Gidda S.K. Chapital D.C. Kuan J.C. Dhanoa P.K. Bland J.M. Rothstein S.J. Mullen R.T. Dyer J.M. Plant Cell. 2006; 18: 2294-2313Crossref PubMed Scopus (448) Google Scholar, 49Li R. Yu K. Hildebrand D.F. Lipids. 2010; 45: 145-157Crossref PubMed Scopus (145) Google Scholar, 50Kroon J.T. Wei W. Simon W.J. Slabas A.R. Phytochemistry. 2006; 67: 2541-2549Crossref PubMed Scopus (176) Google Scholar), it likely contributes to TAG accumulation in plants that do not accumulate unusual FAs based on expression levels in palm, olive, and other plants, even though its relative contribution may vary between species. The formation of DAG from PA is catalyzed by a PA phosphatase (PAP)/phosphohydrolase. This enzyme in mammalian and yeast systems, also termed lipin, functions to control the flux between the synthesis of membrane lipids and TAG (51Reue K. Dwyer J.R. J. Lipid Res. 2009; 50: S109-S114Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (94) Google Scholar, 52Carman G.M. Han G.S. J. Biol. Chem. 2009; 284: 2593-2597Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (161) Google Scholar). Loss-of-function mutations in both mammals and yeast result in increased membrane lipid proliferation and decreased TAG content (51Reue K. Dwyer J.R. J. Lipid Res. 2009; 50: S109-S114Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (94) Google Scholar, 52Carman G.M. Han G.S. J. Biol. Chem. 2009; 284: 2593-2597Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (161) Google Scholar). In fact, mutations in lipin genes in mammals lead to a marked dysregulation of fat accumulation in adipose and other tissues (51Reue K. Dwyer J.R. J. Lipid Res. 2009; 50: S109-S114Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (94) Google Scholar). This results from dual activities of PAP both by transcriptional de-repression of lipid metabolism genes and by regulation of DAG levels. A recent additional role for PAH1 in lipid accumulation has been proposed in yeast: the accumulation of DAG within the ER is thought to nucleate lipid droplet formation (53Adeyo O. Horn P.J. Lee S. Binns D.D. Chandrahas A. Chapman K.D. Goodman J.M. J. Cell Biol. 2011; 192: 1043-1055Crossref PubMed Scopus (222) Google Scholar). Two homologous genes designated PAH1 and PAH2 have been identified in Arabidopsis (54Nakamura Y. Koizumi R. Shui G. Shimojima M. Wenk M.R. Ito T. Ohta H. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 2009; 106: 20978-20983Crossref PubMed Scopus (202) Google Scholar, 55Eastmond P.J. Quettier A.L. Kroon J.T. Craddock C. Adams N. Slabas A.R. Plant Cell. 2010; 22: 2796-2811Crossref PubMed Scopus (155) Google Scholar, 56Mietkiewska E. Siloto R.M. Dewald J. Shah S. Brindley D.N. Weselake R.J. FEBS J. 2011; 278: 764-775Crossref PubMed Scopus (39) Google Scholar). Loss of function of PAH1 and PAH2 in Arabidopsis disrupted membrane remodeling, suggesting a role in the eukaryotic pathway of DAG formation (54Nakamura Y. Koizumi R. Shui G. Shimojima M. Wenk M.R. Ito T. Ohta H. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 2009; 106: 20978-20983Crossref PubMed Scopus (202) Google Scholar). Furthermore, pah1/pah2 double mutants showed increased PC and overall expansion of the ER in leaves, consistent with a function in regulating membrane phospholipid accumulation as in animals and yeast (55Eastmond P.J. Quettier A.L. Kroon J.T. Craddock C. Adams N. Slabas A.R. Plant Cell. 2010; 22: 2796-2811Crossref PubMed Scopus (155) Google Scholar), although the mechanism(s) remain to be elucidated. Still, these pah1/pah2 double mutants had only an ∼15% reduction in seed TAG, suggesting that additional unidentified PAP enzymes provide DAG for TAG biosynthesis. One potential candidate, the β-isoform of lipid phosphate phosphatase, was identified as markedly up-regulated in oil-storing tissues of palm (13Bourgis F. Kilaru A. Cao X. Ngando-Ebongue G.F. Drira N. Ohlrogge J.B. Arondel V. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 2011; 108: 12527-12532Crossref PubMed Scopus (293) Google Scholar), but the functional activity of this enzyme in TAG biosynthesis remains to be determined. Considering the nutritional and economic importance of plant TAG, it is surprising how many questions remain about the precise molecular identity of a GPAT, LPAT, and PAP for TAG synthesis. Even the relative contribution of DGATs is somewhat unclear. Thus, fundamental uncertainties remain about central enzymes of plant TAG synthesis. Clearly, more work needs to be done to characterize the “conventional” Kennedy machinery. Furthermore, as outlined below, the recognition of other pathways that lead to TAG has further expanded the metabolic “networks” that need to be considered. It is clear from many lines of evidence that the synthesis of TAG in plants is not as simple as the sequential acylation of glycerol with GPAT, LPAT, and DGAT (with an intervening PAP) by the conventional Kennedy pathway. In fact, a direct contribution from this pathway to TAG biosynthesis in many cell types may be far less than has been considered historically. In 2000, Stymne and co-workers (57Dahlqvist A. Stahl U. Lenman M. Banas A. Lee M. Sandager L. Ronne H. Stymne S. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 2000; 97: 6487-6492Crossref PubMed Scopus (665) Google Scholar) reported a new DGAT-independent mechanism for TAG synthesis in yeast and plants and identified a yeast gene that increased TAG when overexpressed. Phospholipid:DAG acyltransferase (PDAT) was identified and characterized as an acyl-CoA-independent transacylase that synthesizes TAG from PC and DAG, also yielding lyso-PC. PDAT was heralded as a mechanism for channeling unusual FAs into TAG in some plant species due to its markedly distinct comparative substrate specificities (57Dahlqvist A. Stahl U. Lenman M. Banas A. Lee M. Sandager L. Ronne H. Stymne S. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 2000; 97: 6487-6492Crossref PubMed Scopus (665) Google Scholar), and PDAT has been used to enhance the accumulation of TAG with oxygenated FAs in transgenic seeds (58Kim H.U. Lee K.R. Go Y.S. Jung J.H. Suh M.C. Kim J.B. Plant Cell Physiol. 2011; 52: 983-993Crossref PubMed Scopus (92) Google Scholar, 59van Erp H. Bates P.D. Burgal J. Shockey J. Browse J. Plant Physiol. 2011; 155: 683-693Crossref PubMed Scopus (147) Google Scholar). PDAT was shown to participate in TAG biosynthesis in yeast log-phase growth and could partially compensate for loss of DGAT to store TAG during stationary phase (60Oelkers P. Cromley D. Padamsee M. Billheimer J.T. Sturley S.L. J. Biol. Chem. 2002; 277: 8877-8881Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (266) Google Scholar). Six PDAT-like genes were identified in Arabidopsis, and one, designated PDAT1, accounted for most PDAT activity in plant tissues (61Ståhl U. Carlsson A.S. Lenman M. Dahlqvist A. Huang B. Banas W. Banas A. Stymne S. Plant Physiol. 2004; 135: 1324-1335Crossref PubMed Scopus (233) Google Scholar). However, there was no significant impact on TAG accumulation in pdat1 loss-of-function mutants or in plants overexpressing A. thaliana PDAT, so the role in overall TAG accumulation in Arabidopsis was uncertain (61Ståhl U. Carlsson A.S. Lenman M. Dahlqvist A. Huang B. Banas W. Banas A. Stymne S. Plant Physiol. 2004; 135: 1324-1335Crossref PubMed Scopus (233) Google Scholar, 62Mhaske V. Beldjilali K. Ohlrogge J. Pollard M. Plant Physiol. Biochem. 2005; 43: 413-417Crossref PubMed Scopus (100) Google Scholar). A clear demonstration of a role for PDAT1 in TAG biosynthesis was provided more recently when its expression was silenced by RNA interference in a dgat1-1 mutant background (63Zhang M. Fan J. Taylor D.C. Ohlrogge J.B. Plant Cell. 2009; 21: 3885-3901Crossref PubMed Scopus (380) Google Scholar). Seed TAG content was reduced by 70–80%, and normal seed (and pollen) development was disrupted. Thus, PDAT1 appears to compensate for a loss of DGAT1 and vice versa, but loss of both greatly compromises TAG deposition in both pollen and seeds, thereby indicating an overlapping role for PDAT1 and DGAT1 in seed oil accumulation. These results strongly suggest that PDAT and DGAT pathways cooperate in the majority of TAG synthesis in oil-storing tissues of plants, but this needs to be examined and extended to other plant tissues and species. Recently, another DAG-utilizing enzyme has been identified in plants, and it plays a role in channeling unsaturated FAs into TAG. The enzyme PC:DAG phosphocholine transferase (PDCT) is encode