Abstract A prominent theory proposes that the temporal order of a sequence of items held in memory is reflected in ordered firing of neurons at different phases of theta oscillations 1 . We probe this theory by directly measuring single neuron activity (1420 neurons) and local field potentials (LFP, 921 channels) in the medial temporal lobe of 16 epilepsy patients performing a working memory task for temporal order. We observe theta oscillations and preferential firing of single neurons at theta phase during memory maintenance. We find that - depending on memory performance - phase of firing is related to item position within a sequence. However, in contrast to the theory, phase order did not match item order. To investigate underlying mechanisms, we subsequently trained recurrent neural networks (RNNs) to perform an analogous task. Similar to recorded neural activity, we show that RNNs generate theta oscillations during memory maintenance. Importantly, model neurons exhibit theta phase-dependent firing related to item position, where phase of firing again did not match item order. Instead, we observed a mechanistic link between phase order, stimulus timing and oscillation frequency - a relationship we subsequently confirmed in our neural recordings. Taken together, in both biological and artificial neural networks we provide validating evidence for the role of phase-of-firing in memory processing while at the same time challenging a long-held theory about the functional role of spiking and oscillations in sequence memory.

Phase of firing does not reflect temporal order in sequence memory of humans and recurrent neural networks