Abstract Mobilized colistin resistance genes ( mcr ) may confer resistance to colistin, a last-resort, critically important antimicrobial for human health. mcr can often be transmitted horizontally (e.g., via mobile genetic elements); however, mcr encode phosphoethanolamine transferases (PET) closely related to chromosomally encoded, intrinsic lipid modification enzymes (e.g., EptA, EptB, CptA). To explore the genetic diversity of mcr within the context of intrinsic lipid modification PET, we identified 9,836 non-redundant protein accession numbers associated with mcr -like genes, representing a total of 69,814 mcr -like genes present across 256 bacterial genera. We subsequently identified 125 unique, putative novel mcr -like genes encoded on the same contig as a plasmid replicon and other antimicrobial resistance genes. Sequence similarity and a maximum likelihood phylogeny of mcr , putative novel mcr -like genes, and intrinsic lipid modification PET-encoding genes indicated that sequence similarity is insufficient to discriminate between genes involved in colistin resistance and genes encoding intrinsic lipid modification PET. A mixed-effect model of evolution (MEME) indicated that site- and branch-specific diversifying positive selection might have played a role in the evolution of subvariants within the mcr-2 and mcr-9 families. MEME suggested that positive selection played a role in the diversification of several residues in structurally important regions, including (i) a bridging region that connects the membrane-bound and catalytic periplasmic domains, and (ii) a periplasmic loop juxtaposing the substrate entry tunnel. These residues were found to be differentially conserved in different mcr families and thus may play a role in mcr subvariant phenotypic diversity. Moreover, we found that eptA and mcr are localized within different genomic contexts. Canonical eptA are typically chromosomally encoded in an operon with a two-component regulatory system or adjacent to a TetR-type regulator. In contrast, mcr are encoded as single-gene operons or adjacent to pap2 and dgkA , which encode a PAP2 family lipid A phosphatase and diacylglycerol kinase, respectively. Our data suggest that eptA can give rise to “colistin resistance genes” through various mechanisms, including selection and diversification of the genomic context, regulatory pathways, and mobilization. These mechanisms likely altered gene expression levels and enzyme activity, allowing bona fide eptA to evolve to function in colistin resistance.

More than <i>mcr</i>: Canonical Plasmid- and Transposon-Encoded Mobilized Colistin Resistance (<i>mcr</i>) Genes Represent a Subset of Phosphoethanolamine Transferases

More than mcr: Canonical Plasmid- and Transposon-Encoded Mobilized Colistin Resistance (mcr) Genes Represent a Subset of Phosphoethanolamine Transferases