Abstract Addiction is commonly defined as a chronic, relapsing disorder characterized by taking drugs in excess, compulsive drug seeking, and continued use despite harmful consequences. A key unanswered question for addiction research remains why moderate levels of drug consumption escalate to problematic patterns associated with high motivation and a compulsive-like pattern of drug use in some individuals, but not others, and how sex may affect this trajectory. However, most studies to date have had low statistical power due to low sample size and used animal models with limited genetic diversity and limited access to the drug that are often not associated with significant levels of intoxication or dependence, making it difficult to draw definitive conclusions and translate the results to human. Here we characterized addiction-like behaviors in &gt;500 outbred heterogeneous stock (HS) rats using extended access to cocaine self-administration (6h/daily) and analyzed individual differences in escalation of intake, progressive-ratio (PR) responding, continued use despite adverse consequences (contingent foot shocks), and irritability-like behavior during withdrawal. Principal component analysis showed that escalation of intake, progressive ratio responding, and continued use despite adverse consequence loaded onto a single factor that was orthogonal to irritability-like behaviors. Characterization of rats in four categories of resilient, mild, moderate, and severe addiction-like phenotypes showed that females showed higher addiction-like behaviors, particularly due to a lower number of resilient individuals. These results demonstrate that escalation of intake, continued use despite adverse consequence, and progressive ratio responding are highly correlated measures of the same psychological construct when tested in heterogeneous rats with a history of extended access to the drug, and suggest that a significant proportion of males, but not females may be resilient to addiction-like behaviors.

Large-scale characterization of cocaine addiction-like behaviors reveals that escalation of intake, aversion-resistant responding, and breaking-points are highly correlated measures of the same construct