ABSTRACT Macrophages are the major host cells of the protozoan parasite Leishmania in mammalian infection. These key innate immune cells display remarkable phenotypic plasticity ranging from pro-inflammatory M1 to anti-inflammatory M2 macrophages that can control infection and tissue homeostasis, respectively. It has been recognized that Leishmania exploits macrophage phenotypic plasticity to establish chronic infection. However, the current notion that these parasites simply trigger an M2-like phenotype seems over-simplified considering the immunopathology observed during leishmaniasis – in particular in response to Leishmania amazonensis - which is often characterized by a mixed Th1/Th2 immune response. Here we combined a series of systems-level analyses to shed new light on the phenotype of Leishmania -infected macrophages (LIMs) during short- and long-term infection, in vitro and in vivo . Immuno-metabolic profiling by RNA-seq, RT-qPCR, cytokine immunoassays, and real-time bioenergetic flux analysis of L. amazonensis -infected bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMDMs) revealed a highly complex and unique phenotypic and bioenergetic signature. In vitro LIMs were characterized by co-expression of both M1 and M2 markers at RNA and protein levels and increased expression of glycolytic genes that matched a progressive metabolic switch from a M2-like respiratory to a M1-like glycolytic energy production observed for both long-term in vitro and in vivo infected macrophages. Unlike in M1 macrophages, glycolytic gene expression did not correlate with increased expression of its key regulatory HIF-1α. In contrast, siRNA knock down experiments in primary BMDMs uncovered an essential role of the m 6 A reader protein IGF2BP2 in stabilizing m 6 A modified transcripts of the glycolytic pathway, contributing to HIF-1α-independent induction of glycolysis. In conclusion, L. amazonensis establishes a complex and unique phenotypic shift in infected macrophages in vitro and in vivo that combines M1-like and M2-like immuno-metabolomic characteristics and implicates differential mRNA stability in induction of aerobic glycolysis. Our data thus uncover epi-transcriptomic regulation as a novel target for Leishmania immune subversion to establish a host cell phenotype beneficial for intracellular parasite development and chronic infection.

Immunometabolic profiling of<i>in vitro</i>and<i>ex vivo Leishmania</i>-infected macrophages (LIMs) reveals unique polarization and bioenergetic signatures

Immunometabolic profiling ofin vitroandex vivo Leishmania-infected macrophages (LIMs) reveals unique polarization and bioenergetic signatures