ABSTRACT Ecosystem functions such as seed production are the result of a complex interplay between competitive plant-plant interactions and mutualistic pollinator-plant interactions. In this interplay, spatial plant aggregation could work in two different directions: it could increase intra- and interspecific competition, thus reducing seed production; but it could also attract pollinators increasing plant fitness. To shed light on how plant spatial arrangement modulates this balance, we conducted a field study in a Mediterranean annual grassland with three focal plant species with different phenology ( Chamaemelum fuscatum (early phenology), Leontodon maroccanus (middle phenology) and Pulicaria paludosa (late phenology)) and a diverse guild of pollinators (flies, bees, beetles, and butterflies). All three species showed spatial aggregation of conspecific individuals. Additionally, we found that the two mechanisms were working simultaneously: crowded neighborhoods reduced individual seed production via plant-plant competition, but they also made individual plants more attractive for some pollinator guilds, increasing visitation rates and plant fitness. The balance between these two forces varied depending on the focal species and the spatial scale considered. Therefore, our results indicate that mutualistic interactions not always effectively compensate for competitive interactions in situations of spatial aggregation of flowering plants, at least in our study system. We highlight the importance of explicitly considering the spatial structure at different spatial scales of multitrophic interactions to better understand individual plant fitness and community dynamics.

Plant spatial aggregation modulates the interplay between plant competition and pollinator attraction with contrasting outcomes of plant fitness