ABSTRACT Poxviruses are a large group of DNA viruses with exclusively cytoplasmic life cycles and complex gene expression programs. A number of systems-level studies have analyzed bulk transcriptome and proteome changes upon poxvirus infection, but the cell-to-cell heterogeneity of the transcriptomic response, and the subcellular resolution of proteomic changes have remained unexplored. Here, we measured single-cell transcriptomes of Vaccinia virus-infected populations of HeLa cells and immortalized human fibroblasts, resolving the cell-to-cell heterogeneity of infection dynamics and host responses within those cell populations. We further integrated our transcriptomic data with changes in the levels and subcellular localization of the host and viral proteome throughout the course of Vaccinia virus infection. Our findings from single-cell RNA sequencing indicate conserved transcriptome changes independent of the cellular context, including widespread host shutoff, heightened expression of cellular transcripts implicated in stress responses, the rapid accumulation of viral transcripts, and the robust activation of antiviral pathways in bystander cells. While most host factors were co-regulated at the RNA and protein level, we identified a subset of factors where transcript and protein levels were discordant in infected cells; predominantly factors involved in transcriptional and post-transcriptional mRNA regulation. In addition, we detected the relocalization of several host proteins such as TENT4A, NLRC5, and TRIM5, to different cellular compartments in infected cells. Collectively, our comprehensive data provide spatial and temporal resolution of the cellular and viral transcriptomes and proteomes and offer a robust foundation for in-depth exploration of virus-host interactions in poxvirus-infected cells.

Spatio-temporal analysis of Vaccinia virus infection and host response dynamics using single-cell transcriptomics and proteomics