Abstract Bone tissue engineering is a rapidly advancing field that seeks to develop efficacious approaches for treating non-healing fractures and large bone defects. Healing complications arise due to trauma, disease, infection, aseptic loosening of orthopaedic implants or iatrogenic causes. An ideal biodegradable scaffold would induce and support bone formation until the bone matrix is sufficiently stable to facilitate healing. The current study has examined bone augmentation, using functionalised coated scaffolds, with the hypothesised potential to induce skeletal cell differentiation for the repair of critical-sized bone defects. However, challenges in clinical translation arise from the alterations in cellular microenvironment that are present in the translation from in vitro to in vivo with the application of animal models of progressively increasing size and complexity of the implantation site. 3D printed, porous poly(caprolactone) trimethacrylate (denoted PCL-TMA900) scaffolds were applied within a murine femur defect, stabilised by a polyimide intramedullary pin, to assess the efficacy of select coatings in inducing bone formation. The PCL-TMA900 scaffolds were coated with i) elastin-like polypeptide (ELP), ii) poly(ethyl acrylate)/fibronectin/bone morphogenetic protein-2 (PEA/FN/BMP-2), iii) both ELP and PEA/FN/BMP-2 concurrently, or iv) Laponite™ nanoclay binding BMP-2, as bioactive coatings. The murine femur defect model was refined to assess the coated PCL-TMA900 scaffolds in an osseous defect, with sequential microcomputed tomography (µCT) and histological analysis of the new bone tissue. Overall, PCL-TMA900 was found to be an optimal robust, biocompatible, 3D printable scaffold material. All PCL-TMA900 scaffolds, uncoated and coated, showed integration with the femur. The PCL-TMA900 scaffold coated with the nanoclay material Laponite™ and BMP-2 induced consistent, significant bone formation compared to the uncoated PCL-TMA900 scaffold. Bone formation was observed within the pores of the Laponite/BMP-2 coated scaffold. Critically, no heterotopic bone formation was observed as the BMP-2 was retained around the scaffold and not released into the tissues, producing bone around the scaffold in the desired shape and volume, compared to bone formation observed with the positive control (collagen sponge/BMP-2 construct). In comparison, the ELP coated and PEA/FN/BMP-2 scaffolds did not demonstrate significant or consistent bone formation compared to uncoated PCL-TMA900 control scaffolds. In summary, nanoclay Laponite™/BMP-2 coated PCL-TMA900 scaffolds offer a biodegradable, osteogenic construct for bone augmentation with potential for development into a large scale polymer scaffold for translation to the clinic.

Bioactive coatings on 3D printed polycaprolactone scaffolds for bone regeneration: a novel murine femur defect model for examination of the biomaterial capacity for repair