Abstract

Age is a key parameter in population ecology, with a myriad of biological processes changing with age as organisms develop in early life then later senesce. As age is often hard to accurately measure with non-lethal methods, epigenetic methods of age estimation (epigenetic clocks) have become a popular tool in animal ecology, and are often developed or calibrated using captive animals of known age. However, studies typically rely on invasive blood or tissue samples, which limits their application in more sensitive or elusive species. Moreover, few studies have directly assessed how methylation patterns and epigenetic age estimates compare across environmental contexts (e.g., captive or lab-based vs. wild animals). Here, we built a targeted epigenetic clock from laboratory house mice (strain C57BL/6, Mus musculus) using DNA from non-invasive faecal samples, and then used it to estimate age in a population of wild mice (Mus musculus domesticus) of unknown age. This lab mouse-derived epigenetic clock accurately predicted adult wild mice to be older than juveniles, and showed that wild mice typically increased in epigenetic age over time, but with wide variation in epigenetic ageing rate among individuals. Our results also suggested that, for a given body mass, wild mice had higher methylation across targeted CpG sites than lab mice (and consistently higher epigenetic age estimates as a result), even among the smallest, juvenile mice. This suggests wild and lab mice may display different CpG methylation levels from very early in life, and indicates caution is needed when developing epigenetic clocks on lab animals and applying them in the wild.