Abstract Sentence comprehension involves the rapid decoding of semantic and grammatical information, a process fundamental to communication. As with other cognitive processes, language comprehension relies partly on long-term memory. However, the electrophysiological mechanisms underpinning the initial encoding and generalisation of higher-order linguistic knowledge remains elusive, particularly from a sleep-based consolidation perspective. One candidate mechanism that may subserve the consolidation of language is the temporal coordination of slow oscillations (SO) and sleep spindles during non-rapid eye movement sleep (NREM). To examine this hypothesis, we analysed electroencephalographic (EEG) data recorded from 35 participants (M age = 25.4, SD = 7.10; 16 males) during an artificial language learning task, contrasting performance between individuals who were given an 8hr nocturnal sleep period or an equivelant period of wake. We found that sleep relative to wake was associated with superior performance for rules that followed a sequence-based word order. Post-sleep sequence-based word order processing was associated with an increase in task-related theta power, an electrophysiological signature of successful memory consolidation. Frontal NREM SO-spindle coupling was also positively associated with behavioural sensitivity to sequence-based word order rules, as well as with task-related theta power. As such, theta activity during retrieval of previously learned information correlates with SO-spindle coupling, thus linking neural activity in the sleeping and waking brain. Taken together, this study presents converging behavioural and neurophysiological evidence for a role of NREM SO-spindle coupling and task-related theta activity as signatures of successful memory consolidation and retrieval in the context of higher-order language learning. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT The endogenous temporal coordination of neural oscillations supports information processing during both wake and sleep states. Here we demonstrate that slow oscillation-spindle coupling during non-rapid eye movement sleep predicts the consolidation of complex grammatical rules and modulates task-related oscillatory dynamics previously implicated in sentence processing. We show that increases in theta power predict enhanced sensitivity to grammatical violations after a period of sleep and strong slow oscillation-spindle coupling modulates subsequent task-related theta activity to influence behaviour. Our findings reveal a complex interaction between both wake- and sleep-related oscillatory dynamics during the early stages of language learning beyond the single word level.

Slow oscillation-spindle coupling predicts sequence-based language learning