Using the GTEx data and others, a comprehensive analysis of adenosine-to-inosine RNA editing in mammals is presented; targets of the various ADAR enzymes are identified, as are several potential regulators of editing, such as AIMP2. The GTEx (Genotype-Tissue Expression) Consortium has established a reference catalogue and associated tissue biobank for gene-expression levels across individuals for diverse tissues of the human body, with a broad sampling of normal, non-diseased human tissues from postmortem donors. The consortium now presents the deepest survey of gene expression across multiple tissues and individuals to date, encompassing 7,051 samples from 449 donors across 44 human tissues. Barbara Engelhardt and colleagues characterize the relationship between genetic variation and gene expression, and find that most genes are regulated by genetic variation near to the affected gene. In accompanying GTEx studies, Alexis Battle, Stephen Montgomery and colleagues examine the effect of rare genetic variation on gene expression across human tissues, Daniel MacArthur and colleagues systematically survey the landscape of X chromosome inactivation in human tissues, and Jin Billy Li and colleagues provide a comprehensive cross-species analysis of adenosine-to-inosine RNA editing in mammals. In an accompanying News & Views, Michelle Ward and Yoav Gilad put the latest results in context and discuss how these findings are helping to crack the regulatory code of the human genome. Adenosine-to-inosine (A-to-I) RNA editing is a conserved post-transcriptional mechanism mediated by ADAR enzymes that diversifies the transcriptome by altering selected nucleotides in RNA molecules1. Although many editing sites have recently been discovered2,3,4,5,6,7, the extent to which most sites are edited and how the editing is regulated in different biological contexts are not fully understood8,9,10. Here we report dynamic spatiotemporal patterns and new regulators of RNA editing, discovered through an extensive profiling of A-to-I RNA editing in 8,551 human samples (representing 53 body sites from 552 individuals) from the Genotype-Tissue Expression (GTEx) project and in hundreds of other primate and mouse samples. We show that editing levels in non-repetitive coding regions vary more between tissues than editing levels in repetitive regions. Globally, ADAR1 is the primary editor of repetitive sites and ADAR2 is the primary editor of non-repetitive coding sites, whereas the catalytically inactive ADAR3 predominantly acts as an inhibitor of editing. Cross-species analysis of RNA editing in several tissues revealed that species, rather than tissue type, is the primary determinant of editing levels, suggesting stronger cis-directed regulation of RNA editing for most sites, although the small set of conserved coding sites is under stronger trans-regulation. In addition, we curated an extensive set of ADAR1 and ADAR2 targets and showed that many editing sites display distinct tissue-specific regulation by the ADAR enzymes in vivo. Further analysis of the GTEx data revealed several potential regulators of editing, such as AIMP2, which reduces editing in muscles by enhancing the degradation of the ADAR proteins. Collectively, our work provides insights into the complex cis- and trans-regulation of A-to-I editing.

Dynamic landscape and regulation of RNA editing in mammals