Abstract Growth is an important theme in many biological disciplines. Physiologists often relate growth rates to hormonal control of essential processes. Ecologists often study growth as function of gradients or combinations of environmental factors. Fewer studies have investigated the combined effects of environmental and hormonal control on growth. Here, we present an evolutionary optimization model of fish growth that combines internal regulation of growth by hormone levels with the external influence of food availability and predation risk. Hormones are represented by growth hormone, thyroid hormone and orexin functions. By studying a range from poor to rich environments, we find that the level of food availability in the environment results in different evolutionarily optimal strategies of hormone levels. With more food available, higher levels of hormones are optimal, resulting in higher food uptake and growth. By using this fitness-based approach we also find a consequence of evolutionary optimization of survival on optimal hormone use. Where foraging is risky, aerobic scope can be used strategically to increase the chance of escaping from predators. By comparing model results to empirical observations, many mechanisms can be recognized, for instance a change in pace-of-life due to resource availability, and reduced emphasis on reserves in more stable environments. Summary statement We combine physiological, environmental and evolutionary aspects of fish growth in a state-dependent model where the optimal regulation of growth and survival is achieved through hormonal regulation of behaviour.

Hormones as adaptive control systems in juvenile fish