Abstract

The Mollusca are one of the most successful animal phyla — ubiquitous, varied in body plan and with a long fossil record. Their interrelationships have been a matter of debate, but phylogenomic methods are beginning to resolve the issue. A new study answers some questions about the base of the molluscan tree, showing that, contrary to the traditional view, bivalves and gastropods are members of sister taxa. This finding also raises the possibility that centralization of neural and sensory organs in the head region, and the development of protective shells, may have occurred on several occasions in the evolutionary history of the molluscs. Evolutionary relationships among the eight major lineages of Mollusca have remained unresolved despite their diversity and importance. Previous investigations of molluscan phylogeny, based primarily on nuclear ribosomal gene sequences1,2,3 or morphological data4, have been unsuccessful at elucidating these relationships. Recently, phylogenomic studies using dozens to hundreds of genes have greatly improved our understanding of deep animal relationships5. However, limited genomic resources spanning molluscan diversity has prevented use of a phylogenomic approach. Here we use transcriptome and genome data from all major lineages (except Monoplacophora) and recover a well-supported topology for Mollusca. Our results strongly support the Aculifera hypothesis placing Polyplacophora (chitons) in a clade with a monophyletic Aplacophora (worm-like molluscs). Additionally, within Conchifera, a sister-taxon relationship between Gastropoda and Bivalvia is supported. This grouping has received little consideration and contains most (>95%) molluscan species. Thus we propose the node-based name Pleistomollusca. In light of these results, we examined the evolution of morphological characters and found support for advanced cephalization and shells as possibly having multiple origins within Mollusca.