Podcast Host: Dr. Andrew Huberman (Stanford Associate Professor - brain development, brain plasticity, and neural regeneration and repair fields).

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Podcast Guest: Dr. Robert Malenka (Ph.D., a professor of psychiatry and behavioral sciences at Stanford School of Medicine)

Stanford academic profile: https://profiles.stanford.edu/robert-...

Publications: https://profiles.stanford.edu/robert-...

Key takeaways

Dopamine is vital in the brain's reward circuitry (Segment 02).
Dopamine enhances memory retrieval but impairs metacognitive confidence (Segment 03).
Rewards influence memory through contextual value, object prioritization, and temporal considerations (Segment 05).
The dopamine release rate and route of administration influence the addictive potential of substances (Segment 06).
Drugs of abuse induce brain changes associated with addiction, but individual variability exists (Segment 07).
Opioids and psychostimulants share addictive potential by modulating dopamine release but exhibit distinct actions (Segment 09).
Oxytocin enhances sociability and may influence serotonin and dopamine release in the nucleus accumbens (Segment 11).
Social media addiction resembles substance use disorders, triggering dopamine release and addictive behaviors (Segment 14).

Summary

In the present episode, the featured guest is Robert Malenka, MD, Ph.D., a distinguished professor in the field of psychiatry and behavioral sciences at Stanford School of Medicine. Dr. Malenka has made significant contributions to the understanding of neuroplasticity, specifically in relation to learning processes and the effects of rewarding and reinforcing experiences on the brain. In their scholarly discourse, Dr. Andrew Huberman and Dr. Robert Malenka delve into the intricate workings of the brain's diverse reward systems, which are intricately intertwined with the neurotransmitters dopamine and serotonin. They explore how these systems serve as potent motivators, compelling individuals to actively pursue certain behaviors and substances. Additionally, the authors examine the ways in which these reward systems are adjusted in accordance with contextual factors and our cognitive recollections. They also explore how these systems can be exploited, leading to detrimental drug-seeking behaviors in cases of addiction. The authors also investigate the impact of reward systems on social connections, as well as the role of oxytocin and empathy in relation to our comprehension of autism spectrum disorders. This particular episode is likely to capture the attention of individuals with a keen interest in the fields of neuroplasticity, social bonding, addiction, autism learning, and motivation.

(01). 00:00:00 Dr. Robert Malenka

The laboratory led by Dr. Robert Malenka is renowned for its discovery of several crucial elements that facilitate neuroplasticity, which refers to the neural system's capacity to adapt and modify in accordance with experiences. Furthermore, the research conducted by Dr. Malenka is widely regarded as pivotal in the realm of scholarly understanding regarding the organization and functioning of the brain's reward system, as documented in various textbooks. Dr. Malenka's research over the past decade or so has successfully integrated two previously distinct academic disciplines. One of the areas of study pertains to neuroplasticity, which examines the capacity of the neuro system to undergo changes in response to various experiences. The second field of interest focuses on dopamine and its implications in relation to pleasure and addiction. The laboratory findings indicate that the pursuit of specific forms of pleasure, irrespective of their health implications, has a discernible impact on the functioning of the reward circuitry. Notably, this pursuit alters the release of dopamine and its subsequent effects on the brain. Furthermore, his work is influenced by our pursuit of wholesome pleasure, encompassing aspects such as nutritious food and interpersonal relationships [1].

References

1. Robert Malenka. Available from: https://profiles.stanford.edu/robert-malenka

(02). 00:05:21 Dopamine & Reward Circuitry

Dopamine, a neurotransmitter, is synthesized within specific regions of the brain, namely the substantia nigra, ventral tegmental area, and hypothalamus. The level of dopamine transmission exhibits an increase in response to various forms of reward and is further augmented by a multitude of highly addictive substances. Dopamine serves as a significant neuromodulator within the brain, functioning as a chemical signaling messenger that facilitates a diverse range of actions. Its most prominent role is associated with the brain's reward circuitry, which entails intercommunication between different regions of the brain. Given the intricate nature of the brain, this circuitry plays a crucial role in mediating various cognitive processes. The discovery of dopamine occurred several decades ago. The brain reward circuitry refers to the neural pathways within the brain that are responsible for perceiving and responding to reinforcing stimuli in the environment, thereby eliciting a sense of reward. In order to ensure survival, an individual's nervous system must possess the capacity to discern stimuli within the environment that are crucial for their well-being or potentially hazardous [2].

The limbic system, located deep within the brain, is responsible for controlling and regulating our ability to feel pleasure. The reward circuit, which links various brain structures, regulates our ability to feel pleasure and motivates us to repeat behaviors. When activated, each cell in the circuit relays electrical and chemical signals, with the synapse between the sending and receiving cells being the small gap. Dopamine neurons release dopamine, which travels across the synapse and connects with dopamine receptors on the receiving cell's surface. When dopamine binds to the receptor, proteins attached to the interior part carry the signal onward within the cell. Some dopamine molecules re-enter the sending cell via dopamine transporters and can be re-released. Dopamine surges in response to natural rewards help the brain learn and adapt to a complex world. However, drugs can hijack this process, contributing to unhealthy behaviors and consequences [3].

Figure 01. The dopamine reward system of the brain [4].

References

2. Juárez Olguín, H., et al., The Role of Dopamine and Its Dysfunction as a Consequence of Oxidative Stress. Oxid Med Cell Longev, 2016. 2016: p. 9730467.

3. The Reward Circuit: How the Brain Responds to Natural Rewards and Drugs. Available from: https://nida.nih.gov/videos/reward-circuit-how-brain-responds-to-natural-rewards-drugs#:~:text=In%20the%20reward%20circuit%2C%20dopamine,surface%20of%20the%20receiving%20cell.

4. Sonne, J. and D. Gash, Psychopathy to Altruism: Neurobiology of the Selfish–Selfless Spectrum. Frontiers in Psychology, 2018. 9.

(03). 00:11:31 Reward, Arousal, Memory & Dopamine

The dopamine neurons implicated in the reward circuitry are situated within the ventral tegmental area (VTA) of the midbrain. The neurons in question transmit projections, and their activity within the VTA elicits the release of dopamine in the nucleus accumbens, a constituent of the ventral striatum. The release of dopamine in the nucleus accumbens elicits sensations of high reward and serves as a signaling mechanism for the significance of environmental stimuli. Dopamine additionally stimulates the arousal system and exhibits strong associations with our memory system, as significant occurrences are commonly retained in memory. In the realm of memory, dopamine has been linked to the facilitation of learning and memory mechanisms. Dopamine receptors are involved in the process of encoding and consolidating memories, specifically within the hippocampal-striatal-prefrontal loop, which aids in the creation of new memories. The present study aimed to examine the impact of dopamine on episodic memory retrieval in a sample of healthy individuals, employing pharmacological functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) as the primary investigative tool. The research discovered that the manipulation of dopaminergic activity during the retrieval stage resulted in enhanced accuracy in recognizing pictures that had been previously learned. Nevertheless, this phenomenon has been found to negatively impact individuals' self-assurance when making novel choices, thus suggesting that dopamine plays a dual function in memory functions. On one hand, it enhances the ability to retrieve information effectively, while on the other hand, it hampers metacognitive memory confidence. These findings offer valuable insights into the underlying mechanisms involved in memory retrieval and metacognition, thereby contributing to our understanding of the manifestation of memory impairments in dopamine-related disorders and the potential therapeutic interventions for memory disorders. Additional investigation is required to gain a more comprehensive understanding of the immediate and long-term physiological changes that occur as a result of engaging in physical activity while in a fasted state, in contrast to engaging in physical activity after consuming a meal [5].

Figure 02. Dopaminergic modulation of memory [6].

References

5. Clos, M., N. Bunzeck, and T. Sommer, Dopamine is a double-edged sword: dopaminergic modulation enhances memory retrieval performance but impairs metacognition. Neuropsychopharmacology, 2019. 44(3): p. 555-563.

6. Duszkiewicz, A.J., et al., Novelty and Dopaminergic Modulation of Memory Persistence: A Tale of Two Systems. Trends in Neurosciences, 2019. 42(2): p. 102-114.

(04). 00:17:34 Context, Cues & Dopamine Modification

The brain's dopamine reward circuitry exhibits a high degree of plasticity and is strongly influenced by contextual factors. Based on a study conducted, it was observed that the absence of contextual factors during the initial task resulted in a random incidence of a reward subsequent to a light stimulus, with an equal likelihood. A direct relationship was identified between the activity of dopamine (DA) neurons and the number of preceding trials that did not result in a reward. The pattern described above can be replicated by employing a conventional temporal difference (TD) model. In this particular instance, the calculation of the prediction error was derived from the immediate probability of attaining a reward. In the subsequent task, the researchers took into account the contextual factors. A luminous stimulus was introduced to signify the possibility of a positive outcome. There was a positive correlation observed between the frequency of the reward-associated light stimulus being presented and the number of preceding trials in which no reward was received. It is noteworthy to mention that the neuronal activity of DA in the given task exhibited a negative correlation with the number of preceding trials that failed to produce a reward. The observed negative correlation in the data can be interpreted as an indication of the discrepancy between the predicted and actual outcomes. The disparity is influenced by the contextual factors that are deemed pertinent. The incorporation of contextual information within the TD model was considered indispensable in order to faithfully reproduce the impact of historical events. The results indicate that dopamine neurons possess the capacity to encode prediction errors that are contingent upon the context. The consideration of relevant contextual cues enables enhanced reward prediction [7].

Figure 03. Brain dopamine reward circuitry [8].

References

7. Nakahara, H., et al., Dopamine Neurons Can Represent Context-Dependent Prediction Error. Neuron, 2004. 41(2): p. 269-280.

8. Reward System. Available from: https://rewardfoundation.org/brain-basics/reward-system/.

(05). 00:25:38 Memory & Reward Scaling

The ventral tegmental area contains dopamine neurons that play a crucial role in the reward circuitry. These neurons receive inputs from different brain regions, such as visual and somatosensory areas. In the course of an investigation, the researchers sought to ascertain whether the reward and episodic memory systems display sensitivity to the contextual value of a reward, as opposed to its absolute value or prediction error. The research employed functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and behavioral assessments to replicate the initial pattern of adaptive scaling of memory performance linked to reward. In contrast to the results of the initial study, it was observed that memory performance exhibited improvement when individuals were exposed to lower reward outcomes as opposed to higher ones. Additionally, a marginal effect of reward context was observed, suggesting that the expected value has an impact on memory performance. The authors analyze the durability of the association between reward and memory in the face of alterations in the context of reward, as well as the potential influence of additional factors related to reward on episodic memory. The replication study yielded no empirical support for the previous findings pertaining to the adaptive modulation of reward within the framework of episodic memory. The authors place significant emphasis on the necessity for additional research in order to investigate the association between reward, memory, contextual variables, and the potential impact of other reward-related factors on memory mechanisms [9].

Another study aims to examine the hypothesis that the presence of a reward facilitates the prioritization of memory for objects in relation to their proximity to the reward stimulus. The study involved the participation of human subjects who were tasked with navigating through mazes in order to obtain rewards, all the while coming across neutral objects. The primary objective of the study was to investigate the impact of reward on the retention of memory for the aforementioned objects, as well as to examine the role of post-reward replay and overnight consolidation in memory processes. The study consistently shows, across six distinct data sets, that reward has a systematic effect on memory for neutral objects in a retroactive manner, giving priority to objects that are closer to the reward. The impact of reward on memory becomes apparent following a 24-hour duration and becomes more prominent with an extended period of rest, suggesting the participation of post-reward replay and the process of overnight consolidation. The aforementioned findings are consistent with neurobiological evidence observed in animals, providing further support for the notion that rewards can retroactively influence memory in a manner that follows a sequential gradient. This phenomenon plays a role in facilitating adaptive decision-making. In brief, this study offers empirical evidence supporting the influence of rewards on the prioritization of object memory, taking into account their spatial proximity to the reward despite the presence of a temporal delay. This study elucidates the impact of memory on decision-making processes and underscores the importance of incorporating temporal considerations when evaluating the effects of rewards on memory [10].

Figure 04. Dissociation between the processing of humorous and monetary rewards [11].

References

9. Bunzeck, N., et al., A common mechanism for adaptive scaling of reward and novelty. Hum Brain Mapp, 2010. 31(9): p. 1380-94.

10. Braun, E.K., G.E. Wimmer, and D. Shohamy, Retroactive and graded prioritization of memory by reward. Nature Communications, 2018. 9(1): p. 4886.

11. Chan, Y.-C., W.-C. Hsu, and T.-L. Chou, Dissociation between the processing of humorous and monetary rewards in the ‘motivation’ and ‘hedonic’ brains. Scientific Reports, 2018. 8(1): p. 15425.

(06). 00:30:50 Dopamine, “Addictive Liability” & Route of Administration

The addictive nature of drugs or behaviors is correlated with the rate at which dopamine levels rise. Certain substances, such as caffeine, have the potential to induce tolerance in users while exhibiting a relatively low propensity for addiction. In contrast, substances such as cocaine or opioids exhibit a significant propensity for addiction, a characteristic that is closely associated with two specific dimensions of dopamine: the quantity released within the nucleus accumbens and the rate at which it is released. Furthermore, the method by which a substance is administered also has an impact on its pharmacokinetics and the functioning of the brain's reward system. Both cocaine and methamphetamine possess a significant propensity for addiction. The manner in which drugs are administered, such as through nasal insufflation, inhalation, or intravenous injection, has an impact on the subjective effects and the speed at which dopamine is released in the nucleus accumbens. This heightened emotional state, which may not necessarily be characterized by positive sensations, can endure for a brief duration and engenders a strong inclination to replicate the encounter. It is noteworthy to acknowledge that substances such as cocaine, methamphetamine, and synthetic opioids, including fentanyl, have emerged relatively recently in the course of human history. Consequently, our neurological systems are not inherently adapted to effectively process and respond to the potent effects of these substances. Moreover, the addictive properties of drugs are subject to modulation by the rate at which dopamine levels increase. The addictive potential of different drugs varies, and the manner in which they are administered influences their pharmacokinetics and impact on the reward circuitry. Gaining an understanding of these factors can facilitate the comprehension of the addictive properties exhibited by substances and their effects on the brain [12].

Figure 05. Dopamine, “Addictive Liability” & Route of Administration [13].

References

12. Dong, Y., et al., Route of nicotine administration influences in vivo dopamine neuron activity: habituation, needle injection, and cannula infusion. J Mol Neurosci, 2010. 40(1-2): p. 164-71.

13. Volkow, N.D., et al., Dopamine in drug abuse and addiction: results from imaging studies and treatment implications. Molecular Psychiatry, 2004. 9(6): p. 557-569.

(07). 00:40:04 Drugs of Abuse & Brain Changes; Addiction & Individual Variability

Substances such as methamphetamine and cocaine manipulate the brain's reward circuitry, eliciting a strong inclination to engage in repetitive behavior. Nevertheless, it is essential to note that not all individuals who engage in the consumption of these substances inevitably develop a dependency. Experiments conducted by Dr. Robert Malenka have demonstrated that drugs of abuse elicit substantial alterations in the neurons and synapses located within the reward circuitry. The plasticity of the brain has the ability to modify the functioning of dopamine neurons and the synaptic connections within the nucleus accumbens. It is noteworthy that these alterations bear resemblance to the characteristics typically observed in adaptive forms of learning and memory. The dopamine reward circuitry exhibits a high degree of adaptability and has the capacity to enhance its responsiveness toward particular experiences. Moreover, scholarly investigations indicate that a solitary encounter with cocaine or specific behaviors can result in enduring alterations within the dopamine system, thereby heightening the propensity for addiction. Although these alterations are not of a permanent or irreversible nature, they endure for a prolonged duration. It is probable that such alterations manifest in the majority of individuals who engage in the consumption of these substances [14].

Figure 06. Drugs of Abuse & Brain Changes [15].

References

14. Nestler, E.J., The neurobiology of cocaine addiction. Sci Pract Perspect, 2005. 3(1): p. 4-10.

15. Drug Misuse and Addiction. Available from: https://nida.nih.gov/publications/drugs-brains-behavior-science-addiction/drug-misuse-addiction.

(08). 00:50:51 Reinforcement vs. Reward, Wanting vs. Liking

As per the findings of a study, the term "reward" pertains to stimuli that elicit approach responses, which are linked to the ventral striatum and the nucleus accumbens. On the other hand, the concept of "reinforcement" pertains to stimuli that enhance acquired stimulus-response tendencies and is associated with the dorsolateral striatum. This study presents empirical findings from neuroanatomical and neurochemical investigations, which provide support for the hypothesis that the neural mechanism underlying reward processing involves a specific circuitry comprising the neostriatal patch system, hippocampus, limbic system (including the amygdala and prefrontal cortex), and ventral pallidum. Furthermore, the process of reinforcement, which is facilitated by the release of dopamine in the striatal matrix, plays a crucial role in the consolidation of sensorimotor associations. The matrix plays a role in the formation and retrieval of stimulus-response memory within a neural circuit that encompasses the cerebral cortex, substantia nigra pars reticulata, and connections to motor areas in the thalamus and brainstem. Also, this study offers valuable perspectives on the differentiation between reward and reinforcement, emphasizing the underlying neuroanatomical and neurochemical mechanisms. According to the analysis conducted by the authors, it can be inferred that these processes encompass distinct neural circuits and instruments. This finding contributes to the advancement of our comprehension regarding the motivation and formation of behavioral patterns [16].

Also, a paper highlights that reward encompasses more than just subjective pleasure and involves various factors that influence behavior, even when individuals are not consciously aware of them. Objective measures, such as facial expressions and physiological responses, provide valuable insights into individuals' preferences for rewards, complementing subjective reports. Neuroimaging and neural recording studies have identified multiple brain structures involved in reward processing, including the orbitofrontal cortex, anterior cingulate cortex, insula, nucleus accumbens, ventral pallidum, ventral tegmentum, mesolimbic dopamine projections, and amygdala. However, pinpointing the specific brain systems responsible for pleasure causation remains challenging. To investigate the hedonic impact, the researchers analyze objective 'liking' responses to sweet taste rewards in humans and animals. They identify brain manipulations and neurochemical systems, such as opioids, endocannabinoids, and GABA-benzodiazepines, that enhance 'liking' reactions in specialized brain regions known as 'hedonic hotspots' within limbic structures. A comprehensive understanding of the components of reward and their underlying neurobiological foundations is crucial for developing improved treatments for mood and motivational disorders, including depression, eating disorders, drug addiction, and other behaviors driven by the pursuit of rewards [17].

References

16. White, N.M., Reward or reinforcement: What's the difference? Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 1989. 13(2): p. 181-186.

17. Berridge, K.C., T.E. Robinson, and J.W. Aldridge, Dissecting components of reward: 'liking', 'wanting', and learning. Curr Opin Pharmacol, 2009. 9(1): p. 65-73.

(09). 00:57:50 Opioids, Psychostimulants & Dopamine

The existing body of research, encompassing studies conducted on both animal and human subjects, as well as pre-clinical animal models, consistently indicates that opioids and psychostimulants, such as cocaine and methamphetamine, share a common characteristic in terms of their addictive potential. Specifically, these substances elicit a substantial release of dopamine within the nucleus accumbens, a region primarily associated with dopamine neurons. It is worth noting that this effect is achieved through distinct mechanisms, which vary significantly between the two types of substances. Psychostimulant drugs, such as cocaine and methamphetamine, exert their effects by interacting with specific proteins or molecules in the brain. These substances interfere with the reuptake of dopamine, a neurotransmitter responsible for regulating various brain functions. Cocaine inhibits the reuptake of dopamine, leading to its prolonged presence in the brain. Methamphetamine not only inhibits reuptake but also directly triggers the release of dopamine from nerve terminals. In contrast, opioids operate differently by primarily targeting the dopamine neurons themselves. They indirectly enhance the activity of these neurons, resulting in a significantly larger than-usual release of dopamine. One shared characteristic among these drugs is their impact on the reward circuitry and the subsequent subjective experiences they elicit. However, it is essential to note that the subjective experiences of individuals who have used these drugs can vary significantly due to the diverse actions exerted by these substances throughout the brain. Furthermore, it should be noted that these drugs are not identical. Fentanyl possesses a significantly greater potential for addiction due to its molecular characteristics and its interaction with the opioid system in the brain, specifically with the receptors comprising the brain's proteins. However, it is noteworthy that the subjective experience of opioids is intriguing, as it elicits a positive response in certain individuals. These drugs exhibit shared mechanisms by primarily inducing a substantial dopamine release in the nucleus accumbens, both directly and indirectly. However, they also possess distinct individual actions [18].

Figure 07. Psychostimulant and brain [19].

References

18. Badiani, A., et al., Opiate versus psychostimulant addiction: the differences do matter. Nat Rev Neurosci, 2011. 12(11): p. 685-700.

19. Blum, K., J.L. Cadet, and M.S. Gold, Psychostimulant use disorder emphasizing methamphetamine and the opioid -dopamine connection: Digging out of a hypodopaminergic ditch. Journal of the Neurological Sciences, 2021. 420: p. 117252.

(10). 01:12:40 Autism Spectrum Disorder

Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is a complex developmental disability that varies widely among individuals. It encompasses a range of characteristics, from severe intellectual impairments and significant challenges in social interactions to sensory processing difficulties and various behavioral impairments. People with ASD may experience difficulties in learning, movement, and attention, and their unique ways of learning and interacting can present challenges in daily life. ASD primarily affects social communication and interaction skills. Early signs may include avoiding eye contact, not responding to names, lack of facial expressions, inability to engage in simple interactive games, limited use of gestures, failure to share interests, not pointing to objects of interest, difficulty recognizing others' emotions or distress, challenges in joining play with peers, inability to engage in imaginative play, and limited expressive abilities like singing or acting. In addition to social communication challenges, individuals with ASD often display restricted or repetitive behaviors and intense interests. These behaviors may include focusing on close-up details of objects, repetitive phrases or actions, inflexible routines, specific fixations, physical self-stimulation like hand-flapping or body rocking, and heightened sensitivity or unusual reactions to sensory stimuli such as sounds, smells, tastes, or appearances. Furthermore, individuals with ASD may exhibit other related characteristics, such as delayed language development, motor skill difficulties, cognitive or learning delays, hyperactivity, impulsivity, inattention, epilepsy or seizures, atypical eating and sleeping patterns, gastrointestinal issues, unusual emotional responses, and increased levels of anxiety, stress, or worry. It is important to understand that ASD is a highly diverse condition, and each individual's experiences and challenges can differ significantly [20].

Figure 08. Autism Spectrum Disorder.

References

20. Signs and Symptoms of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Available from: https://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/autism/signs.html#:~:text=Autism%20spectrum%20disorder%20(ASD)%20is,or%20repetitive%20behaviors%20or%20interests.

(11). 01:19:29 Pro-Social Interaction & Reward; Oxytocin, Serotonin & Dopamine

A recent study investigated the differences in prosocial behavior between male and female mice, as well as their sensitivity to social reward and ability to recognize the affective state of others. Prosocial behavior, which refers to voluntary actions aimed at benefiting others, has traditionally been associated with humans. However, evidence suggests that laboratory animals also exhibit prosocial choices, indicating the presence of evolutionarily conserved prosocial behaviors. The study involved adult male and female C57BL/6 laboratory mice, who participated in a task that presented them with a choice between two compartments within an experimental cage. Both compartments offered equal rewards to the subject mouse, but only entering the "prosocial" compartment resulted in a reward for an interaction partner. Additionally, the researchers evaluated the mice's sensitivity to social reward and their ability to discern the affective state of another individual. The findings indicated that female mice displayed an increase in the frequency of prosocial choices from the pretest to the test phase, while male mice did not demonstrate the same increase. These results align with observations of sex differences in prosocial behavior in humans, where females tend to exhibit a higher inclination towards prosocial behavior. However, both male and female mice exhibited similar rewarding effects of social contact in the conditioned place preference test. Furthermore, there was no significant impact of sex on affective state discrimination, which measures the preference for interacting with a hungry or relieved mouse over a neutral one. Overall, the study underscores the existence of sex differences in prosocial behavior among adult mice, with female mice displaying a greater frequency of prosocial choices compared to males. These findings offer intriguing parallels to the observed disparities in human prosocial behavior and provide insights into the role of social reward and affective state discrimination in shaping prosocial behaviors in mice [21].

Dr. Robert conducted a project focused on examining the effects of oxytocin in the nucleus accumbens of mice. The study revealed that oxytocin's action in the nucleus accumbens plays a significant role in promoting sociability, likely through enhancing the reinforcing aspect of social interactions. Interestingly, the researchers were surprised to find that oxytocin appears to induce the release of serotonin in the nucleus accumbens. Previous studies have demonstrated that dopamine is also released in the nucleus accumbens during positive, non-aggressive social interactions, although it may also be released during aggressive interactions. Additionally, it is worth noting that oxytocin is not only released in the nucleus accumbens but also in the ventral tegmental area (VTA), which is known as the home of dopamine [22].

Figure 09. Oxytocin and serotonin in the modulation of neural function [23].

References

21. Misiołek, K., et al., Prosocial behavior, social reward and affective state discrimination in adult male and female mice. Scientific Reports, 2023. 13(1): p. 5583.

22. Moaddab, M., B.I. Hyland, and C.H. Brown, Oxytocin excites nucleus accumbens shell neurons in vivo. Molecular and Cellular Neuroscience, 2015. 68: p. 323-330.

23. Zhao, F., et al., Oxytocin and serotonin in the modulation of neural function: Neurobiological underpinnings of autism-related behavior. 2022. 16.

(12). 01:30:30 Nucleus Accumbens & Behavior Probability

The nucleus accumbens (NAcc) and its associated circuitry plays a vital role in regulating our behaviors. It consists of two primary cell types that work together to influence our actions. One type acts as an accelerator, promoting certain behaviors, while the other type acts as a brake, inhibiting those behaviors. These cells are modulated by neurotransmitters like serotonin and dopamine. The NAcc is involved in a wide range of behaviors, including motivation, feeding, sexual behavior, reward processing, stress responses, and drug addiction. It serves as a crucial connection between our emotional and motor functions. Within the NAcc, there are two regions: the core and the shell. Each region has specific connections and contributes to different aspects of behavior. The shell acts as a coincidence detector, becoming active during adaptive situations. It receives inputs from the prefrontal cortex, amygdala, and hippocampus, working in tandem with the core and prefrontal cortex to reinforce goal-directed motor sequences. These connections are linked to both pyramidal and extrapyramidal motor systems. Dopamine, a neurotransmitter, plays a significant role in the NAcc. It acts as a neuro stabilizer within the region, influencing and stabilizing the processes involved in goal-directed motor sequences mediated by the core and prefrontal cortex. Understanding the functioning and connectivity of the NAcc is crucial for studying and developing treatments for various conditions related to motivation, reward, and behavioral disorders. By uncovering the mechanisms at play in the NAcc, researchers can gain valuable insights into the integration of motivation and action, shedding light on the complex behaviors and disorders associated with this brain region [24].

Figure 10. Strengthening of the nucleus accumbens pathway [25].

References

24. Fernández-Espejo, E., [How does the nucleus accumbens function?]. Rev Neurol, 2000. 30(9): p. 845-9.

25. Luís, C., et al., Persistent strengthening of the prefrontal cortex – nucleus accumbens pathway during incubation of cocaine-seeking behavior. Neurobiology of Learning and Memory, 2017. 138: p. 281-290.

(13). 01:38:28 Reward for Pro-Social Behavior

The study investigated the impact of extrinsic rewards on prosocial behavior and discovered a phenomenon called "crowding out." Surprisingly, increasing rewards can actually decrease prosocial behavior because it shifts the focus from intrinsic value to instrumental value. To test their hypothesis, the authors conducted a large-scale natural experiment in the environmental domain. They found that the relationship between rewards and prosocial behavior follows an "s-shaped" curve, indicating an optimal reward level beyond which further increases lead to a decline in prosocial behavior. These findings challenge conventional economic theory, which assumes that higher rewards always result in more prosocial behavior. The authors suggest that future research should explore the factors that determine the optimal reward level for fostering prosocial behavior, such as the specific type of behavior, individual intrinsic motivation, and social context [26].

References

26. Wollbrant, C.E., M. Knutsson, and P. Martinsson, Extrinsic rewards and crowding-out of prosocial behavior. Nature Human Behaviour, 2022. 6(6): p. 774-781.

(14). 01:43:13 Social Media & “Addictive Liability”; Gambling

In recent years, there has been a significant surge in the prevalence of social media usage, leading to its widespread adoption as a customary practice among individuals. Although the majority of individuals utilize social media platforms without encountering any difficulties, a minority of users develop a dependency on these networking sites, exhibiting patterns of excessive and compulsive engagement. According to contemporary estimations, the prevalence of social media addiction among Americans ranges from 5 to 10%. This behavioral addiction encompasses an excessive preoccupation with social media, an irresistible compulsion to frequently engage with or access social media platforms, and a disproportionate allocation of time and energy towards such activities, resulting in detrimental effects on other significant domains of life. The manifestations of excessive social media consumption bear resemblance to the symptoms observed in individuals with substance use disorders. The components encompassed within this phenomenon are as follows: mood modification, which refers to the utilization of social media platforms as a means to induce a positive alteration in one's emotional state; salience, which pertains to the preoccupation with social media manifested in thoughts, behaviors, and emotions; tolerance, which denotes the gradual escalation of social media engagement over an extended period; withdrawal symptoms, which encompass the unpleasant physical and emotional repercussions experienced when one's access to social media is restricted or completely ceased; conflict, which denotes the interpersonal difficulties that arise as a consequence of excessive social media usage; and lastly, relapse, which refers to the swift return to excessive social media engagement following a period of abstinence. The occurrence of social media addiction can be ascribed to the social environments facilitated by social networking sites that induce dopamine release. Social media platforms such as Facebook, Snapchat, and Instagram have the potential to shape neural circuitry in the brain in a manner that bears a resemblance to the impact of gambling and recreational drugs, with the primary objective of sustaining user engagement. According to existing research, it has been found that the consistent flow of retweets, likes, and shares on social media platforms can activate the reward center of the brain, leading to a chemical response akin to the effects induced by substances such as cocaine. Neuroscientists have drawn a comparison between social media interaction and the direct administration of dopamine into the human system [27].

Figure 11. Social media addiction and changes in the brain [28].

References

27. What Is Social Media Addiction? ; Available from: https://www.addictioncenter.com/drugs/social-media-addiction/.

28. Cheng, H. and J. Liu, Alterations in Amygdala Connectivity in Internet Addiction Disorder. Scientific Reports, 2020. 10(1): p. 2370.

(15). 01:52:17 Pain, Social Behavior & Empathy

A study was carried out to examine the impact of social exclusion on pain empathy and to ascertain the specific elements of empathy that are affected. The participants were allocated into two distinct groups, namely the social exclusion group and the social inclusion group, through the utilization of a Cyberball task. Subsequently, the participants proceeded to partake in a pain empathy task, during which their neural responses were monitored and documented. The findings indicated that both groups exhibited an initial distinction (N2) between images depicting pain and those depicting neutrality in the central regions. In the subsequent stage of cognitive processing, it was observed that the group subjected to social exclusion displayed notably diminished brain responses (specifically, parietal P3) when exposed to distressing images in comparison to neutral images. Conversely, no significant disparities were detected within the social inclusion group. Both experimental groups exhibited a delayed neural response, specifically in the parietal late positive potential (LPP), when distinguishing between painful and neutral images. However, the group subjected to social exclusion displayed notably diminished brain responses to painful stimuli in comparison to the group that experienced social inclusion. The results of this study indicate that social exclusion does not have a significant impact on empathic responses during the initial emotional sharing stage. However, it does have a down-regulating effect on empathic responses during the subsequent cognitive controlled stage. It is worth noting that this effect gradually diminishes over time. In summary, this research offers neuroscientific evidence regarding the impact of social exclusion on pain empathy in a dynamic manner. The findings of this study indicate that social exclusion has a significant impact on the later stage of cognitively controlled empathic responses, leading to a decrease in empathic responses toward pain. This research contributes to the advancement of knowledge regarding the intricate relationship between social variables and the mechanisms underlying empathy. Additional investigation is required to further examine the fundamental mechanisms and investigate potential interventions targeted at alleviating the adverse impacts of social exclusion on empathy [29].

Figure 12. Empathy as a driver of prosocial behavior [30].

References

29. Fan, M., et al., Social Exclusion Down-Regulates Pain Empathy at the Late Stage of Empathic Responses: Electrophysiological Evidence. 2021. 15.

30. Decety, J., et al., Empathy as a driver of prosocial behavior: highly conserved neurobehavioural mechanisms across species. 2016. 371(1686): p. 20150077.

(16). 02:02:19 Empathy Circuitry, Dopamine & Serotonin

Empathy, with its multidimensional nature, presents challenges in defining and measuring it. It encompasses cognitive empathy, affective empathy, and compassionate empathy, each involving different aspects of understanding, sharing, and motivation to help others. Translating empathy research from the laboratory to clinical settings is a complex task, as traditional measures like self-report questionnaires may lack reliability and validity, and neuroimaging studies may not directly translate to clinical applications [31].

Another study investigates the neural mechanisms and circuits that underlie the experience of compassion and love, with the objective of elucidating both their shared characteristics and distinctive features. The researchers direct their attention toward specific brain regions, namely the prefrontal cortex, insula, and anterior cingulate cortex. These regions are known to have significant involvement in processes related to empathy, emotion regulation, and social cognition. Gaining insights into human behavior and enhancing mental health interventions necessitates a comprehensive understanding of the neural underpinnings of compassion and love. This study highlights the importance of conducting additional research in order to gain a deeper understanding of the complex neurobiological mechanisms underlying compassion and love. The utilization of sophisticated neuroimaging methodologies, such as functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and electroencephalography (EEG), is suggested by the authors as a means to examine the temporal dynamics and connectivity patterns of the brain networks linked to these emotional states. This research has the potential to enhance our comprehension of compassion and love, and potentially inform the creation of therapeutic interventions aimed at addressing deficiencies in empathy and promoting social cohesion. This paper presents a comprehensive examination of the neurobiological correlation between compassion and love, emphasizing the common neural mechanisms involved. It acknowledges the necessity for further research to advance our comprehension of these intricate emotional phenomena [32].

Another study reveals that depleting serotonin levels intensify emotional reactions to social situations involving unjust harm, with guilt and annoyance being particularly affected based on individual personality traits. Highly empathic individuals experience increased guilt, while those with high levels of trait psychopathy exhibit heightened annoyance. These findings have significant implications for understanding vulnerability to psychopathology and identifying individuals who may respond better to treatments targeting serotonin levels. Moreover, the research enhances our understanding of serotonin's role in emotional processing and its impact on social functioning. The study underscores the complex interplay between serotonin, individual personality traits, and distinct social emotions, emphasizing the need to consider personality differences when examining the effects of serotonin on emotional responses to social conflict. Further investigation in this field holds promise for gaining deeper insights into the mechanisms underlying emotional processing and developing personalized interventions tailored to individuals with diverse emotional profiles and psychopathological conditions [33].

Figure 13. Dopamine and serotonin circuitry [34].

References

31. Uysal, N., et al., Empathy as a Concept from Bench to Bedside: A Translational Challenge. Noro Psikiyatr Ars, 2020. 57(1): p. 71-77.

32. Esch, T. and G.B. Stefano, The neurobiological link between compassion and love. Med Sci Monit, 2011. 17(3): p. Ra65-75.

33. Kanen, J.W., et al., Serotonin depletion amplifies distinct human social emotions as a function of individual differences in personality. Translational Psychiatry, 2021. 11(1): p. 81.

34. Conio, B., et al., Opposite effects of dopamine and serotonin on resting-state networks: review and implications for psychiatric disorders. Molecular Psychiatry, 2020. 25(1): p. 82-93.

(17). 02:10:07 Autism Spectrum Disorder & Social Interactions, Empathy

The meta-analysis titled "Empathy Impairment in Individuals with Autism Spectrum Conditions from a Multidimensional Perspective" investigated empathy deficits in individuals with Autism Spectrum Conditions (ASC). The study examined 51 research papers to understand the different components of empathy and how culture, gender, and age influence these impairments. The findings revealed that individuals with ASC experience impairments in specific empathy components, such as trait-cognitive empathy and trait-empathic concern. However, state-empathic accuracy remains unaffected, and trait-empathic accuracy is even superior to neurotypical individuals. Gender was identified as a moderator, influencing trait-empathic concern, trait-empathic accuracy, and state-cognitive empathy, while age moderated trait-cognitive empathy, trait-empathic accuracy, state-empathic concern, and state-empathic accuracy. Interestingly, culture did not moderate empathy components in this meta-analysis. These findings contribute to the understanding of empathy impairments in ASC, highlighting the importance of considering specific empathy components, gender, and age when studying these impairments. Further research with diverse cultural samples and female participants is recommended to deepen our knowledge. The study's insights can help improve interventions and support for individuals with ASC by focusing on specific empathy components and individual differences [35].

Another study examined reward processing deficits in individuals with Autism Spectrum Conditions (ASC) using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). The researchers compared 16 individuals with ASC to 16 typically developing individuals and measured their neural responses to social and monetary rewards. The results showed reduced neural responses to both social and monetary rewards in individuals with ASC, with a greater reduction observed for social rewards. The study also found deficits in frontostriatal response during socially rewarded learning in individuals with ASC. These findings highlight the connection between reward processing impairments and social learning deficits in ASC. They contribute to our understanding of the social motivation hypothesis of autism and underscore the importance of considering reward processing in interventions and treatments for individuals with ASC [36].

Also, a study shows the effects of oxytocin on social behavior in individuals with autism spectrum disorders (ASD). The authors argue that oxytocin has potential benefits for improving social behavior in individuals with ASD, including enhancing eye contact, facial expressions, and social interaction. To further investigate this, the authors conducted a study where intranasal oxytocin was administered to adults with high-functioning ASD. The results revealed that oxytocin administration increased eye contact, facial expressions, and social interaction in these individuals. The authors conclude that oxytocin holds promise as a treatment for social deficits in autism, although further research is necessary to optimize its use. They suggest that oxytocin may be a valuable complement to other interventions, such as behavioral therapy, in the treatment of autism. Overall, the findings highlight the potential of oxytocin in improving social behavior in individuals with ASD, but further research is needed to solidify these findings and explore its optimal application [37].

Figure 14. Autism Spectrum Disorder & Social Interactions [38].

References

35. Song, Y., et al., Empathy Impairment in Individuals With Autism Spectrum Conditions From a Multidimensional Perspective: A Meta-Analysis. 2019. 10.

36. Scott-Van Zeeland, A.A., et al., Reward processing in autism. Autism Res, 2010. 3(2): p. 53-67.

37. Andari, E., et al., Promoting social behavior with oxytocin in high-functioning autism spectrum disorders. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A, 2010. 107(9): p. 4389-94.

38. What are the Symptoms of Autism?; Available from: https://www.geniuslane.co.in/post/what-are-symptoms-of-autism.

(18). 02:17:23 MDMA, Serotonin & Dopamine; Addiction & Pro-Social Effects

MDMA, also known as ecstasy, affects the brain by increasing the activity of three neurotransmitters: serotonin, dopamine, and norepinephrine. It achieves this by enhancing the release and/or blocking the reuptake of these neurotransmitters, leading to increased levels within the synaptic cleft, the space between neurons. Notably, MDMA predominantly triggers the release of serotonin and norepinephrine rather than dopamine. Serotonin is a crucial neurotransmitter involved in regulating mood, sleep, pain, appetite, and other behaviors. The excessive release of serotonin by MDMA contributes to the mood-elevating effects experienced by individuals. However, this flood of serotonin leads to significant depletion of the neurotransmitter in the brain, resulting in negative psychological aftereffects that can last for several days after MDMA use. Research conducted on rodents and primates has demonstrated that moderate to high doses of MDMA when administered multiple times, can cause damage to serotonin-containing nerve cells. These effects can be long-lasting, as evidenced by reduced numbers of serotonergic neurons observed in primates even seven years after MDMA exposure. MDMA also affects the serotonin system in other ways, such as altering the expression of proteins and genes involved in serotonin uptake and synthesis. Low levels of serotonin are associated with poor memory, depressed mood, and cognitive impairments. Consistent with this, individuals who regularly use MDMA may experience confusion, depression, anxiety, paranoia, memory impairment, and attention difficulties. The impact of MDMA on norepinephrine also contributes to cognitive impairment, emotional excitation, and euphoria associated with its use. Brain imaging studies using positron emission tomography (PET) have revealed changes in brain activity among individuals who have stopped using MDMA. These changes involve decreased brain activity at rest in regions associated with learning, memory, and emotion formation and processing. PET imaging has also shown that a single low dose of MDMA can increase cerebral blood flow in certain brain regions while decreasing it in others. These brain regions are involved in emotional processing, behavioral learning, and sensory and motor function. However, the effects of moderate MDMA use on the human brain remain inconclusive due to methodological differences across studies, and more research is needed to determine whether observed changes are specifically caused by MDMA use or influenced by other factors. Factors such as gender, dosage, frequency, and intensity of use, age of initiation, use of other drugs, as well as genetic and environmental factors, may all contribute to the cognitive deficits associated with MDMA use and should be considered in future studies [39].

Figure 15. MDMA’s Effects on Serotonin, Dopamine, and Norepinephrine.

Also, a study reveals a complex and bidirectional relationship between prosocial behaviors and addiction problems. It suggests that engaging in prosocial behaviors can serve as a protective factor against addiction. However, addiction problems can also result in a decline in prosocial behaviors. To gain a deeper understanding of this relationship, future research should concentrate on identifying the factors that influence the connection between prosocial behaviors and addiction problems. Additionally, there is a need to develop interventions that can promote prosocial behaviors and prevent addiction [40].

References

39. What are MDMA’s effects on the brain? ; Available from: https://nida.nih.gov/publications/research-reports/mdma-ecstasy-abuse/what-are-mdmas-effects-on-brain#:~:text=MDMA%20causes%20greater%20release%20of%20serotonin%20and%20norepinephrine%20than%20of%20dopamine.&text=Serotonin%20is%20a%20neurotransmitter%20that,mood%2Delevating%20effects%20people%20experience.

40. Esparza-Reig, J., et al., Relationship between Prosocial Behaviours and Addiction Problems: A Systematic Review. Healthcare (Basel), 2021. 10(1).

(19). 02:28:13 Autism Spectrum Disorder, Social Behavior, MDMA & Pharmacology

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a developmental disability that stems from brain differences. While some cases of ASD can be attributed to known genetic conditions, the exact causes for others remain unknown. Scientists believe that ASD arises from a combination of various factors that influence typical development. Despite ongoing research, much is still unknown about these causes and their impact on individuals with ASD. People with ASD may exhibit behaviors, communication styles, social interactions, and learning approaches that differ from the majority. In terms of appearance, there may be no distinct physical characteristics that set them apart from others. The abilities of individuals with ASD can vary widely. Some may possess advanced conversational skills, while others may be nonverbal. Some require extensive assistance in their daily lives, while others can function with minimal support [41].

The Multidisciplinary Association for Psychedelic Studies (MAPS) is a non-profit organization dedicated to exploring the therapeutic potential of MDMA, a psychoactive drug. They have conducted two Phase 3 clinical trials, MAPS-2 and MAPS-3, to investigate the effectiveness of MDMA-assisted therapy in treating post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Both trials demonstrated positive results in reducing PTSD symptoms, highlighting the potential of MDMA-assisted therapy. In addition to these trials, MAPS is conducting various other clinical trials to examine the therapeutic benefits of MDMA for conditions such as anxiety disorders, eating disorders, and substance use disorders. Their research aims to expand the understanding of MDMA's potential in treating different mental health conditions. MAPS is also actively involved in developing educational and training programs to equip clinicians with the necessary skills to provide MDMA-assisted therapy. They are advocating for legal and regulatory changes to pave the way for making this therapy available to patients in need. The research conducted by MAPS indicates that MDMA-assisted therapy has the potential to be a safe and effective treatment option for several mental health conditions. Their ultimate goal is to make this therapy accessible to patients as soon as possible. Here are some additional details about the MAPS clinical trials: MAPS-2 involved 126 participants with severe PTSD in the United States and Canada, while MAPS-3 included 201 participants with severe PTSD in the United States, Canada, and Israel. These trials utilized randomized assignments, with participants receiving either MDMA-assisted therapy or a placebo. Alongside these trials, MAPS is exploring the therapeutic benefits of MDMA in treating anxiety disorders, eating disorders, and substance use disorders through various ongoing clinical trials [42].

Another company MindMed is a clinical-stage biopharmaceutical company dedicated to developing psychedelic-inspired medicines and digital therapeutics for mental health disorders. Their focus includes studying the potential therapeutic benefits of MDMA in treating post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), anxiety disorders, and substance use disorders through clinical trials. MindMed's ongoing MDMA trials are currently in Phase 2. They are conducting a Phase 2a trial of MDMA-assisted therapy for PTSD in the United States, with an expected completion in 2023. Additionally, they are conducting a Phase 2b trial of MDMA-assisted therapy for anxiety disorders in Canada, expected to be completed in 2024. Alongside MDMA, MindMed is actively developing other psychedelic-inspired medicines, including LSD, psilocybin, and DMT. They are also engaged in the development of digital therapeutics that complement their psychedelic medicines. MindMed's overarching objective is to create safe and effective psychedelic-inspired medicines and digital therapeutics to enhance the well-being and quality of life for individuals with mental health disorders [43].

Here are additional details regarding MindMed's MDMA trials:

Phase 2a trial: This trial is taking place in the United States and involves 60 participants diagnosed with PTSD. Participants are randomly assigned to receive either MDMA-assisted therapy or a placebo.

Phase 2b trial: This trial is being conducted in Canada and encompasses 120 participants with anxiety disorders. Participants are randomly assigned to receive either MDMA-assisted therapy or a placebo.

Figure 16. MDMA & Pharmacology [44].

References

41. What is Autism Spectrum Disorder?; Available from: https://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/autism/facts.html.

42. 3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine. Available from: https://maps.org/mdma/.

43. MDMA Trials Available from: https://mindmed.co/.

44. Michael, G.B. and A.C. Kathryn, 3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) as a Unique Model of Serotonin Receptor Function and Serotonin-Dopamine Interactions. Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, 2001. 297(3): p. 846.

(20). 02:37:18 Serotonin, MDMA & Psychedelics

Psilocybin and LSD are often regarded as producing mystical effects, while MDMA can have empathogenic or entactogenic properties due to its impact on serotonin and different receptor systems. These substances create distinct subjective experiences, unlike any natural herbs or mushrooms that can simultaneously increase serotonin and dopamine levels. MDMA, being a synthesized molecule, serves as an experimental tool for studying the brain and has potential therapeutic applications, which organizations like MAPS are interested in. A study was conducted to examine the immediate effects of LSD, MDMA, and D-amphetamine on individuals who were in good health. The researchers employed a double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover design and assessed various factors such as mood, cognition, and brain function to understand the influence of these drugs. The findings revealed noticeable effects of all three substances (LSD, MDMA, and D-amphetamine) on mood, cognition, and brain function. However, each drug had its unique set of effects. LSD enhanced positive mood, empathy, and creativity. MDMA increased sociability, trust, and feelings of love. D-amphetamine provided a boost in energy, motivation, and focus. The study also shed light on how these drugs affected brain function differently. LSD heightened activity in the visual cortex, amygdala, and hippocampus. MDMA increased activity in the ventral tegmental area, nucleus accumbens, and prefrontal cortex. D-amphetamine stimulated activity in the prefrontal cortex, striatum, and cerebellum [45].

Figure 17. MDMA modulates Cortical and Limbic brain activity [46].

References

45. Holze, F., et al., Distinct acute effects of LSD, MDMA, and d-amphetamine in healthy subjects. Neuropsychopharmacology, 2020. 45(3): p. 462-471.

46. Gamma, A., et al., 3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) Modulates Cortical and Limbic Brain Activity as Measured by [H215O]-PET in Healthy Humans. Neuropsychopharmacology, 2000. 23(4): p. 388-395

(21). 02:40:16 Psychedelics: Research & Therapeutic Potential

A recent study delves into the history, present state, and future possibilities of psychedelic drug research. The authors shed light on the cultural impact of psychedelic drugs, particularly LSD, during the mid-twentieth century when they were widely utilized in research and clinical settings. However, psychedelic research encountered obstacles and experienced a decline in subsequent years. The paper emphasizes the revival of human psychedelic research in recent decades, with notable studies conducted in Germany, the United States, and Switzerland. These studies have investigated the effects of psychedelics on neuroimaging, psychology, and psychopharmacology. Furthermore, the authors discuss several early-phase clinical trials that have shown promising preliminary results regarding the safety and potential efficacy of psychedelics in treating conditions such as obsessive-compulsive disorder, end-of-life psychological distress, alcohol and tobacco addiction, and major depressive disorder. The authors cautiously express optimism about the therapeutic potential of psychedelic drugs. The renewed interest in psychedelic research has laid the groundwork for further exploration and potential advancements in the fields of psychology and psychiatry. Particularly, the development of psilocybin as a treatment for depression holds promise and is highlighted as a compelling area for future investigation [47].

References

47. Carhart-Harris, R.L. and G.M. Goodwin, The Therapeutic Potential of Psychedelic Drugs: Past, Present, and Future. Neuropsychopharmacology, 2017. 42(11): p. 2105-2113.

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