The antioxidant responsive element (ARE) mediates transcriptional regulation of phase II detoxification enzymes and antioxidant proteins such as NAD(P)H:quinone oxidoreductase (NQO1), glutathione S-transferases, and glutamate-cysteine ligase. In this study, we demonstrate that NF-E2-related factor-2 (Nrf2) plays a major role in transcriptional activation of ARE-driven genes and identify Nrf2-dependent genes by oligonucleotide microarray analysis using primary cortical astrocytes from Nrf2+/+ and Nrf2−/− mice. Nrf2−/−astrocytes had decreased basal NQO1 activity and no induction bytert-butylhydroquinone compared with Nrf2+/+ astrocytes. Similarly, both basal and induced levels of human NQO1-ARE-luciferase expression in Nrf2−/− astrocytes were significantly lower than in Nrf2+/+ astrocytes. Furthermore, human NQO1-ARE-luciferase expression in Nrf2−/−astrocytes was restored by overexpression of Nrf2, whereas ARE activation in Nrf2+/+ astrocytes was completely blocked by dominant-negative Nrf2. In addition, we observed that Nrf2-dependent genes protected primary astrocytes from H2O2- or platelet-activating factor-induced apoptosis. In support of these observations, we identified Nrf2-dependent genes encoding detoxification enzymes, glutathione-related proteins, antioxidant proteins, NADPH-producing enzymes, and anti-inflammatory genes using oligonucleotide microarrays. Proteins within these functional categories are vital to the maintenance and responsiveness of a cell defense system, suggesting that an orchestrated change in gene expression via Nrf2 and the ARE gives a synergistic protective effect against oxidative stress. The antioxidant responsive element (ARE) mediates transcriptional regulation of phase II detoxification enzymes and antioxidant proteins such as NAD(P)H:quinone oxidoreductase (NQO1), glutathione S-transferases, and glutamate-cysteine ligase. In this study, we demonstrate that NF-E2-related factor-2 (Nrf2) plays a major role in transcriptional activation of ARE-driven genes and identify Nrf2-dependent genes by oligonucleotide microarray analysis using primary cortical astrocytes from Nrf2+/+ and Nrf2−/− mice. Nrf2−/−astrocytes had decreased basal NQO1 activity and no induction bytert-butylhydroquinone compared with Nrf2+/+ astrocytes. Similarly, both basal and induced levels of human NQO1-ARE-luciferase expression in Nrf2−/− astrocytes were significantly lower than in Nrf2+/+ astrocytes. Furthermore, human NQO1-ARE-luciferase expression in Nrf2−/−astrocytes was restored by overexpression of Nrf2, whereas ARE activation in Nrf2+/+ astrocytes was completely blocked by dominant-negative Nrf2. In addition, we observed that Nrf2-dependent genes protected primary astrocytes from H2O2- or platelet-activating factor-induced apoptosis. In support of these observations, we identified Nrf2-dependent genes encoding detoxification enzymes, glutathione-related proteins, antioxidant proteins, NADPH-producing enzymes, and anti-inflammatory genes using oligonucleotide microarrays. Proteins within these functional categories are vital to the maintenance and responsiveness of a cell defense system, suggesting that an orchestrated change in gene expression via Nrf2 and the ARE gives a synergistic protective effect against oxidative stress. antioxidant responsive element NAD(P)H:quinone oxidoreductase-1 human NAD(P)H:quinone oxidoreductase glutathione S-transferase heme oxygenase-1 thioredoxin reductase-1 NF-E2-related factor-2 tert-butylhydroquinone platelet-activating factor cytomegalovirus glutamate-cysteine ligase modifier subunit glutamate-cysteine ligase catalytic subunit terminal deoxynucleotidyltransferase-mediated dUTP nick end labeling The antioxidant responsive element (ARE)1 is acis-acting regulatory element in promoter regions of several genes encoding phase II detoxification enzymes and antioxidant proteins (1Rushmore T.H. Morton M.R. Pickett C.B. J. Biol. Chem. 1991; 266: 11632-11639Google Scholar). The ARE plays an important role in transcriptional activation of downstream genes such as NAD(P)H:quinone oxidoreductase (NQO1), glutathione S-transferases (GSTs), UDP-glycosyltransferase 1A6, glutamate-cysteine ligase (previously known as γ-glutamylcysteine synthetase), heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1), thioredoxin reductase-1 (TXNRD1), thioredoxin, and ferritin (2Lee J.-M. Moehlenkamp J.D. Hanson J.M. Johnson J.A. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 2001; 280: 286-292Google Scholar, 3Lee J.-M. Hanson J.M. Chu W.A. Johnson J.A. J. Biol. Chem. 2001; 276: 20011-20016Google Scholar, 4Moehlenkamp J.D. Johnson J.A. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 1999; 363: 98-106Google Scholar, 5Alam J. Wicks C. Stewart D. Gong P. Touchard C. Otterbein S. Choi A.M. Burow M.E. Tou J. J. Biol. Chem. 2000; 275: 27694-27702Google Scholar, 6Favreau L.V. Pickett C.B. J. Biol. Chem. 1995; 270: 24468-24474Google Scholar, 7Kim Y.C. Masutani H. Yamaguchi Y. Itoh K. Yamamoto M. Yodoi J. J. Biol. 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Genes Dev. 1999; 13: 76-86Google Scholar, 15Itoh K. Ishii T. Wakabayashi N. Yamamoto M. Free Radic. Res. 1999; 31: 319-324Google Scholar) have demonstrated that Nrf2 is sequestered in the cytoplasm by its repressor Keap1 (mouse), released under conditions of oxidative stress, and translocated into the nucleus. This cytoplasmic repressor of Nrf2 was also identified in human and rat (14Itoh K. Wakabayashi N. Katoh Y. Ishii T. Igarashi K. Engel J.D. Yamamoto M. Genes Dev. 1999; 13: 76-86Google Scholar, 16Bloom D. Dhakshinamoorthy S. Jaiswal A.K. Oncogene. 2002; 21: 2191-2200Google Scholar, 17Dhakshinamoorthy S. Jaiswal A.K. Oncogene. 2001; 20: 3906-3917Google Scholar). The suggested binding partners that have been demonstrated to bind with Nrf2 consist of other basic leucine zipper proteins such as small Maf (18Itoh K. Chiba T. Takahashi S. Ishii T. Igarashi K. Katoh Y. Oyake T. Hayashi N. Satoh K. Hatayama I. Yamamoto M. Nabeshima Y. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 1997; 236: 313-322Google Scholar, 19Marini M.G. Chan K. Casula L. Kan Y.W. Cao A. Moi P. J. Biol. Chem. 1997; 272: 16490-16497Google Scholar), Jun (20Venugopal R. Jaiswal A.K. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 1996; 93: 14960-14965Google Scholar), activating transcription factor-4 (21He C.H. Gong P. Hu B. Stewart D. Choi M.E. Choi A.M. Alam J. J. Biol. Chem. 2001; 276: 20858-20865Google Scholar), and cAMP-responsive element-binding protein-binding protein (22Katoh Y. Itoh K. Yoshida E. Miyagishi M. Fukamizu A. Yamamoto M. Genes Cells. 2001; 6: 857-868Google Scholar). The DNA binding sequence of Nrf2 (5′-TGA(C/G)TCA-3′) (23Motohashi H. Shavit J.A. Igarashi K. Yamamoto M. Engel J.D. Nucleic Acids Res. 1997; 25: 2953-2959Google Scholar) is very similar to the ARE core sequence (5′-TGACnnnGC-3′) (1Rushmore T.H. Morton M.R. Pickett C.B. J. Biol. Chem. 1991; 266: 11632-11639Google Scholar). Several lines of evidence suggest that Nrf2 binds to the ARE sequence, leading to transcriptional activation of downstream genes encoding GSTs (24Chanas S.A. Jiang Q. McMahon M. McWalter G.K. McLellan L.I. Elcombe C.R. Henderson C.J. Wolf C.R. Moffat G.J. Itoh K. Yamamoto M. Hayes J.D. Biochem. J. 2002; 365: 405-416Google Scholar, 25Hayes J.D. Chanas S.A. Henderson C.J. McMahon M. Sun C. Moffat G.J. Wolf C.R. Yamamoto M. Biochem. Soc. Trans. 2000; 28: 33-41Google Scholar, 26Ishii T. Itoh K. Takahashi S. Sato H. Yanagawa T. Katoh Y. Bannai S. Yamamoto M. J. Biol. Chem. 2000; 275: 16023-16029Google Scholar, 27Nguyen T. Huang H.C. Pickett C.B. J. Biol. Chem. 2000; 275: 15466-15473Google Scholar), glutamate-cysteine ligase (28Wild A.C. Moinova H.R. Mulcahy R.T. J. Biol. Chem. 1999; 274: 33627-33636Google Scholar), HO-1 (26Ishii T. Itoh K. Takahashi S. Sato H. Yanagawa T. Katoh Y. Bannai S. Yamamoto M. J. Biol. Chem. 2000; 275: 16023-16029Google Scholar, 29Alam J. Stewart D. Touchard C. Boinapally S. Choi A.M. Cook J.L. J. Biol. Chem. 1999; 274: 26071-26078Google Scholar), and thioredoxin (7Kim Y.C. Masutani H. Yamaguchi Y. Itoh K. Yamamoto M. Yodoi J. J. Biol. Chem. 2001; 276: 18399-18406Google Scholar). Previously, our laboratory demonstrated that Nrf2 is a critical transcription factor for both basal and induced levels of NQO1 expression in IMR-32 human neuroblastoma cells (2Lee J.-M. Moehlenkamp J.D. Hanson J.M. Johnson J.A. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 2001; 280: 286-292Google Scholar, 3Lee J.-M. Hanson J.M. Chu W.A. Johnson J.A. J. Biol. Chem. 2001; 276: 20011-20016Google Scholar). In contrast to the clear evidences for a role of Nrf2 in ARE activation, the upstream signaling pathway is controversial. For example, mitogen-activated protein kinase (30Yu R. Lei W. Mandlekar S. Weber M.J. Der C.J. Wu J. Kong A.T. J. Biol. Chem. 1999; 274: 27545-27552Google Scholar), protein kinase C (31Huang H.C. Nguyen T. Pickett C.B. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 2000; 97: 12475-12480Google Scholar), and phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (3Lee J.-M. Hanson J.M. Chu W.A. Johnson J.A. J. Biol. Chem. 2001; 276: 20011-20016Google Scholar, 32Li J. Lee J.-M. Johnson J.A. J. Biol. Chem. 2002; 277: 388-394Google Scholar, 33Li J. Johnson J.A. Physiol. Genomics. 2002; 9: 137-144Google Scholar, 34Johnson D.A. Andrews G.K. Xu W. Johnson J.A. J. Neurochem. 2002; 81: 1233-1241Google Scholar, 35Kang K.W. Cho M.K. Lee C.H. Kim S.G. Mol. Pharmacol. 2001; 59: 1147-1156Google Scholar) have been suggested to play an important role in ARE activation. The function of Nrf2 and its downstream proteins has been shown to be important for protection against oxidative stress- or chemical-induced cellular damage in liver (36Chan K. Han X.D. Kan Y.W. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 2001; 98: 4611-4616Google Scholar, 37Enomoto A. Itoh K. Nagayoshi E. Haruta J. Kimura T. O'Connor T. Harada T. Yamamoto M. Toxicol. Sci. 2001; 59: 169-177Google Scholar) and lung (38Chan K. Kan Y.W. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 1999; 96: 12731-12736Google Scholar) as well as for prevention of cancer formation in the gastrointestinal tract (39Fahey J.W. Haristoy X. Dolan P.M. Kensler T.W. Scholtus I. Stephenson K.K. Talalay P. Lozniewski A. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 2002; 99: 7610-7615Google Scholar, 40Ramos-Gomez M. Kwak M.K. Dolan P.M. Itoh K. Yamamoto M. Talalay P. Kensler T.W. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 2001; 98: 3410-3415Google Scholar) and promotion of the wound-healing process (41Braun S. Hanselmann C. Gassmann M.G. auf dem Keller U. Born-Berclaz C. Chan K. Kan Y.W. Werner S. Mol. Cell. Biol. 2002; 22: 5492-5505Google Scholar). In addition, many chronic neurodegenerative diseases (i.e.Parkinson's disease and Alzheimer's disease) are thought to involve oxidative stress as a component contributing to the progression of the disease. The regulation and cell-specific expression of these genes in cells derived from brain could therefore be important for understanding how to protect neural cells from oxidative stress. One of the Nrf2-dependent ARE-driven genes, NQO1, has been demonstrated to play an important role in protecting cells against oxidative stress (42Dinkova-Kostova A.T. Talalay P. Free Radic. Biol. Med. 2000; 29: 231-240Google Scholar, 43Murphy T.H. De Long M.J. Coyle J.T. J. Neurochem. 1991; 56: 990-995Google Scholar, 44Radjendirane V. Joseph P. Lee Y.H. Kimura S. Klein-Szanto A.J. Gonzalez F.J. Jaiswal A.K. J. Biol. Chem. 1998; 273: 7382-7389Google Scholar). Interestingly, overexpression of NQO1 and one GST isoenzyme does not protect N18-RE-105 rodent neuroblastoma cells from free radical-mediated toxicity (45Duffy S. So A. Murphy T.H. J. Neurochem. 1998; 71: 69-77Google Scholar), althoughtert-butylhydroquinone (tBHQ) treatment, which up-regulates a battery of ARE-driven genes, protects N18-RE-105 cells from glutamate toxicity (43Murphy T.H. De Long M.J. Coyle J.T. J. Neurochem. 1991; 56: 990-995Google Scholar). These observations imply that the coordinate up-regulation of ARE-driven genes, not one or two genes, is more efficient in protecting cells from oxidative damage. A recent study identified the ARE-driven genes including NQO1 that are responsible for protecting IMR-32 human neuroblastoma cells from H2O2-induced apoptosis (32Li J. Lee J.-M. Johnson J.A. J. Biol. Chem. 2002; 277: 388-394Google Scholar, 33Li J. Johnson J.A. Physiol. Genomics. 2002; 9: 137-144Google Scholar). Therefore, Nrf2, which mediates transcription of ARE-driven genes, is presumably the driving force behind increasing a cluster of protective genes that play an important role in cellular defense against oxidative stress. In the central nervous system, astrocytes have been shown to express many of these protective ARE-driven genes and ARE-driven human placental alkaline phosphatase in primary cortical neuronal cultures derived from transgenic reporter mice (34Johnson D.A. Andrews G.K. Xu W. Johnson J.A. J. Neurochem. 2002; 81: 1233-1241Google Scholar). To further understand how Nrf2 contributes to the regulation of ARE-driven genes in astrocytes and how expression of these genes affects the sensitivity of astrocytes to oxidative stress, we compared primary cortical astrocyte cultures derived from Nrf2+/+ and Nrf2−/− mice. Astrocytes were treated with tBHQ to induce nuclear translocation of Nrf2 leading to ARE activation and H2O2 or platelet-activating factor (PAF) (46Hostettler M.E. Knapp P.E. Carlson S.L. Glia. 2002; 38: 228-239Google Scholar) to determine differential sensitivity. To understand how Nrf2-dependent genes are associated with this differential sensitivity, we performed oligonucleotide microarray analysis. Nrf2 knockout mice were generated by replacing the basic leucine zipper domain with thelacZ reporter construct as described previously (47Chan K. Lu R. Chang J.C. Kan Y.W. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 1996; 93: 13943-13948Google Scholar). Nrf2+/− mice were bred with Nrf2+/− mice, and primary cortical astrocyte cultures were prepared individually. Cerebral cortices from newborn pup littermates were removed, placed in ice-cold Hanks' balance salt solution (3 ml/pup; Invitrogen), centrifuged at 300 ×g for 2 min, and digested individually in 0.5 mg/ml trypsin (Invitrogen) in Hanks' balance salt solution at 37 °C for 25 min. Tissues were washed twice with Hanks' balance salt solution and resuspended in minimal essential medium with Earle's salt (Mediatech) containing heat-inactivated (55 °C, 30 min) fetal bovine serum (107) and horse serum (107) (both from Atlanta Biologicals, Inc.). Cell suspensions were sieved through cell strainers (70 ॖm; Falcon) and plated at a density of 5 × 104 cells/ml. The medium was changed after 24 h of initial plating and every 3 days thereafter. Cultures were maintained at 37 °C in a humidified three-gas incubator (57 O2, 907 N2, and 57 CO2; Forma Scientific, Inc.). The Nrf2 genotype of each culture was determined by a PCR-based method (3′-primer, 5′-GGAATGGAAAATAGCTCCTGCC-3′; 5′-primer, 5′-GCCTGAGAGCTGTAGGCCC-3′; andlacZ primer, 5′-GGGTTTTCCCAGTCACGAC-3′) from genomic DNA (DNeasy DNA isolation kit, QIAGEN Inc.). Cells were used for experiments between 5 and 10 days in vitro. Typically, >957 of the cells in the cultures (both Nrf2−/−and Nrf2+/+) were astrocytes as determined by immunostaining of the astrocyte-specific marker glial fibrillary acidic protein (1:1000 dilution; Dako Corp.) (data not shown). Astrocytes in 96-well plates were transfected with human NQO1 (hNQO1)-ARE-luciferase (80 ng/well) and cytomegalovirus (CMV)-ॆ-galactosidase reporter constructs (20 ng/well) by the calcium phosphate transfection method as described previously (2Lee J.-M. Moehlenkamp J.D. Hanson J.M. Johnson J.A. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 2001; 280: 286-292Google Scholar, 3Lee J.-M. Hanson J.M. Chu W.A. Johnson J.A. J. Biol. Chem. 2001; 276: 20011-20016Google Scholar). For overexpression, pEF (control vector), pEF-wild-type Nrf2, and pEF-dominant-negative Nrf2 were transfected together with hNQO1-ARE-luciferase and CMV-ॆ-galactosidase. After 24 h of transfection, cells were treated with chemicals for another 24 h, and luciferase and ॆ-galactosidase activities were determined (2Lee J.-M. Moehlenkamp J.D. Hanson J.M. Johnson J.A. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 2001; 280: 286-292Google Scholar, 3Lee J.-M. Hanson J.M. Chu W.A. Johnson J.A. J. Biol. Chem. 2001; 276: 20011-20016Google Scholar). Reporter gene expression is presented as the ratio of luciferase to ॆ-galactosidase activity (for transfection efficiency correction). Endogenous NQO1 enzymatic activity was determined by a colorimetric method for whole cell extracts (with menadione as a substrate) (48Prochaska H.J. Santamaria A.B. Anal. Biochem. 1988; 169: 328-336Google Scholar) and histochemistry for fixed cultures (LY 83583 as a substrate) (34Johnson D.A. Andrews G.K. Xu W. Johnson J.A. J. Neurochem. 2002; 81: 1233-1241Google Scholar) as described previously. For glutamate-cysteine ligase modifier subunit (GCLM) and glutamate-cysteine ligase catalytic subunit (GCLC) Western blotting, 50 ॖg of whole cell extracts (2Lee J.-M. Moehlenkamp J.D. Hanson J.M. Johnson J.A. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 2001; 280: 286-292Google Scholar, 3Lee J.-M. Hanson J.M. Chu W.A. Johnson J.A. J. Biol. Chem. 2001; 276: 20011-20016Google Scholar) were used. Representative Western blots are shown in the figures. Total glutathione (GSH + GSSG) levels were measured as described previously (34Johnson D.A. Andrews G.K. Xu W. Johnson J.A. J. Neurochem. 2002; 81: 1233-1241Google Scholar). Cell viability was determined using the 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-5-(3-carboxymethoxyphenyl)-2-(4-sulfophenyl)-2H-tetrazolium salt assay (Promega), and apoptotic cell death was determined by terminal deoxynucleotidyltransferase-mediated dUTP nick end labeling (TUNEL) staining (Roche Molecular Biochemicals). Primary astrocytes in 96-well plates were pretreated with vehicle (0.017 Me2SO) or tBHQ (50 ॖm). After 48 h, cells were treated with H2O2 (0–300 ॖm, 4 h) or PAF (0–50 ॖm, 24 h). For PAF treatment, the medium was changed with serum-free Dulbecco's modified Eagle's medium. The media were changed with fresh media, and 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-5–3-carboxymethoxyphenyl)tetrazolium salt substrate was added. After a 2-h incubation, the absorbance at 490 nm was measured. Percent cell viability was calculated byA490(treatment)/A490(control)× 1007. For TUNEL staining, astrocytes in eight-chamber slides were pretreated (0.017 Me2SO or 50 ॖm tBHQ, 48 h), treated (phosphate-buffered saline; 150 ॖmH2O2, 4 h; or 20 ॖm PAF, 24 h), and stained according to the manufacturer's protocol. Nrf2−/− and Nrf2+/+ primary astrocytes were treated with vehicle (0.017 Me2SO) or tBHQ (50 ॖm) for 24 h. Biotinylated cRNA was prepared from total RNA, and fragmented cRNA was hybridized to MG U74 Av2 arrays (Affymetrix) (32Li J. Lee J.-M. Johnson J.A. J. Biol. Chem. 2002; 277: 388-394Google Scholar, 33Li J. Johnson J.A. Physiol. Genomics. 2002; 9: 137-144Google Scholar). Affymetrix Microarray Suite 5.0 was used to scan and analyze the relative abundance of each gene (scaling target signal 2500 and default analysis parameters). Data were analyzed by rank analysis as previously described (32Li J. Lee J.-M. Johnson J.A. J. Biol. Chem. 2002; 277: 388-394Google Scholar, 33Li J. Johnson J.A. Physiol. Genomics. 2002; 9: 137-144Google Scholar). Briefly, the definition of increase, decrease, or no change of expression for individual genes was based on ranking the difference call from two intergroup comparisons (2 × 2 matrix),viz. no change = 0, marginal increase = 1, marginal decrease = −1, increase = 2, and decrease = −2. The final rank reflects the sum of the four values (2 × 2 matrix) corresponding to the difference calls. The cutoff values for increase/decrease were set as +4/−4 (2 × 2 matrix). The reproducibility of paired comparisons was based on the coefficient of variation (S.D./mean) for the fold change of the ranked genes. A distribution curve of the coefficient of variation (CV) was used to determine its cutoff value. The cutoff values were CV < 1.0 and ≥1.2-fold for increased genes and CV > −1.0 and ≤−1.2-fold for decreased genes. This method of analysis is critical in generating an accurate list of genes associated with Nrf2 and tBHQ treatment. Because these littermate cultures were derived from mice of mixed background, there is the possibility that some changes in expression may be associated with differences in genetic background. However, this type of matrix analysis selects for consistent reproducible changes associated with the presence of Nrf2 and tBHQ treatment in lieu of random changes due to genetic background (32Li J. Lee J.-M. Johnson J.A. J. Biol. Chem. 2002; 277: 388-394Google Scholar,33Li J. Johnson J.A. Physiol. Genomics. 2002; 9: 137-144Google Scholar). Gene categorization was based on the NetAffx Database. 2Available at www.NetAffx.com. Total RNA was isolated using TRIzol reagent (Invitrogen), and cDNA was synthesized (reverse transcription system, Promega) according to the manufacturer's protocol. Aliquots of cDNA were used for PCR amplification using Taq DNA polymerase (Promega). PCR primers specific to each gene are as follows: NQO1, 5′-CATTCTGAAAGGCTGGTTTGA-3 and 5′-CTAGCTTTGATCTGGTTGTCAG-3′; GST Mu1, 5′-CTCCCGACTTTGACAGAAGC-3′ and 5′-CAGGAAGTCCCTCAGGTTTG-3′; GST A4, 5′-GCCAAGTACCCTTGGTTGAA-3′ and 5′-CAATCCTGACCACCTCAACA-3′; UDP-glycosyltransferase 1A6, 5′-TAGTGCTTTGGGCCTCAGTT-3′ and 5′-CCAAGCATGTGTTCCAGAGA-3′; GCLM, 5′-ACCTGGCCTCCTGCTGTGTG-3′ and 5′-GGTCGGTGAGCTGTGGGTGT-3′; GCLC, 5′-ACAAGCACCCCCGCTTCGGT-3′ and 5′-CTCCAGGCCTCTCTCCTCCC-3′; TXNRD1, 5′-GGGAGAAAAAGGTCGTCTA-3′ and 5′-ACATTGGTCTGCTCTTCATC-3′; HO-1, 5′-TACACATCCAAGCCGAGAAT-3′ and 5′-GTTCCTCTGTCAGCATCACC-3′; protamine-1, 5′-CAGCAAAAGCAGGAGCAG-3′ and 5′-GACAGGTGGCATTGTTCCTT-3′; and ॆ-actin, 5′-AGAGCATAGCCCTCGTAGAT-3′ and 5′-CCCAGAGCAAGAGAGGTATC-3′. Initially, to choose an ARE activator for this study, we tested several known ARE activators in other cell types such as tBHQ in IMR-32 human neuroblastoma cells (2Lee J.-M. Moehlenkamp J.D. Hanson J.M. Johnson J.A. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 2001; 280: 286-292Google Scholar, 3Lee J.-M. Hanson J.M. Chu W.A. Johnson J.A. J. Biol. Chem. 2001; 276: 20011-20016Google Scholar), and H2O2 (1Rushmore T.H. Morton M.R. Pickett C.B. J. Biol. Chem. 1991; 266: 11632-11639Google Scholar) and phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate in HepG2 human hepatoma cells (31Huang H.C. Nguyen T. Pickett C.B. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 2000; 97: 12475-12480Google Scholar). Nrf2−/− and Nrf2+/+ astrocytes were transfected with hNQO1-ARE-luciferase and treated with vehicle, tBHQ, H2O2, or phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate. First, the basal level of hNQO1-ARE-luciferase expression in Nrf2+/+ astrocytes (3086.5 ± 320.7) (V in Fig. 1B) was significantly higher than in Nrf2−/− astrocytes (657 ± 91.6) (V in Fig. 1A). Second, none of the tested chemicals activated the ARE in Nrf2−/− astrocytes (Fig.2A). Third, only tBHQ increased reporter gene expression in Nrf2+/+astrocytes (Fig. 2B), suggesting that a tBHQ-specific signaling pathway mediates Nrf2-dependent ARE activation in primary astrocytes.Figure 2Nrf2-dependent AREactivation and NQO1 expression. A, primary astrocytes were transfected with hNQO1-ARE-luciferase (80 ng/well) and CMV-ॆ-galactosidase (20 ng/well). After 24 h of transfection, cells were treated with tBHQ (0–20 ॖm) for 24 h. Luciferase and galactosidase activities were measured, and ARE-luciferase gene expression was calculated by the ratio of luciferase to galactosidase activity. Each data barrepresents the mean ± S.E. (n = 6). B, primary astrocytes were treated with tBHQ (0–50 ॖm) for 72 h, and NQO1 activity was determined from cell lysates. Eachdata bar represents the mean ± S.E. (n= 6). C, primary astrocytes were treated with vehicle (0.017 Me2SO) or tBHQ (50 ॖm) for 72 h, and NQO1 activity was determined by histochemistry using LY 83583 as a substrate. Magnification is ×200.View Large Image Figure ViewerDownload (PPT) hNQO1-ARE-luciferase gene expression and endogenous NQO1 activity were determined in tBHQ-treated Nrf2−/− and Nrf2+/+ astrocytes. In Nrf2−/− astrocytes, basal ARE-luciferase reporter gene expression was markedly decreased, and there was no induction of reporter gene expression by tBHQ compared with Nrf2+/− and Nrf2+/+ astrocytes (Fig. 2A). Similarly, both basal and induced levels of endogenous NQO1 activity in Nrf2−/− astrocytes were significantly lower than in Nrf2+/− and Nrf2+/+ astrocytes (Fig. 2B), implying that Nrf2 plays an important role in both basal and induced ARE-driven gene expression in mouse primary cortical astrocytes. In addition, histochemical detection of NQO1 activity confirmed the Nrf2-dependent NQO1 gene expression. The NQO1 staining of vehicle-treated Nrf2+/+ astrocytes was significantly higher than that of vehicle-treated Nrf2−/− cells (Fig. 2C, upper left panel versus lower left panel), and tBHQ increased NQO1 staining intensity only in Nrf2+/+ astrocytes (lower left panel versus lower right panel). To further investigate the role of Nrf2 in ARE activation, we transfected Nrf2−/− astrocytes with an Nrf2 overexpression vector to restore ARE activation and Nrf2+/+ astrocytes with dominant-negative Nrf2 to inhibit ARE activation. Dominant-negative Nrf2 (N-terminally truncated Nrf2) inhibits endogenous Nrf2 function by occupying and limiting its binding partners and DNA-binding sites (5Alam J. Wicks C. Stewart D. Gong P. Touchard C. Otterbein S. Choi A.M. Burow M.E. Tou J. J. Biol. Chem. 2000; 275: 27694-27702Google Scholar). Indeed, overexpression of Nrf2 led to dramatic ARE activation in Nrf2−/− astrocytes (Fig.3A). tBHQ did not activate the ARE in pEF-transfected Nrf2−/− astrocytes. However, tBHQ did activate the ARE in Nrf2-overexpressing Nrf2−/− astrocytes in a dose-dependent manner (Fig. 3A). Finally, dominant-negative Nrf2 blocked both basal and induced ARE activation by tBHQ in Nrf2+/+ astrocytes (Fig. 3B). Nrf2 regulates ARE-driven genes involved in detoxification and antioxidant potential. Therefore, we hypothesized that Nrf2−/− astrocytes would be more sensitive to oxidative stress compared with Nrf2+/+astrocytes due to reduced levels of detoxification and antioxidant potential. To investigate this differential sensitivity, we pretreated Nrf2−/− and Nrf2+/+ astrocytes with tBHQ (50 ॖm, 48 h) to increase ARE-driven gene expression and then with H2O2 to investigate differential sensitivity. Also, we used the potent inflammatory agent PAF (46Hostettler M.E. Knapp P.E. Carlson S.L. Glia. 2002; 38: 228-239Google Scholar) to investigate the anti-inflammatory effect of Nrf2. As shown in Fig. 4A, vehicle-pretreated Nrf2−/− astrocytes were more sensitive to H2O2-induced cytotoxicity compared with vehicle-pretreated Nrf2+/+ astrocytes. Furthermore, tBHQ pretreatment significantly increased cell viability in Nrf2+/+ (but not Nrf2−/−) astrocytes (Fig. 4A). Similarly, Nrf2−/− astrocytes were more sensitive to PAF compared with Nrf2+/+ astrocytes, and tBHQ pretreatment protected only Nrf2+/+ astrocytes (Fig.4B). TUNEL staining and the corresponding phase-contrast microscope pictures confirmed this differential sensitivity. As shown in Fig. 4C, the numbers of TUNEL-positive cells in H2O2- or PAF-treated Nrf2−/− astrocytes were greater than in the corresponding Nrf2+/+ astrocytes. Although tBHQ did not decrease the number of TUNEL-positive cells in Nrf2−/− astrocytes, tBHQ pretreatment decreased TUNEL-positive cells in both H2O2- and PAF-treated Nrf2+/+ astrocytes (data not shown). Consistent with the TUNEL data, H2O2 and PAF induced more caspase-3 activation in Nrf2−/−astrocytes than in Nrf2+/+ astrocytes (data not shown). These observations suggest that Nrf2−/−astrocytes are more sensitive to oxidative stress and inflammation compared with Nrf2+/+ astrocytes and that coordinate up-regulation of ARE-driven genes by tBHQ further protects Nrf2+/+ cells from H2O2- and PAF-induced cytotoxicity. To identify the Nrf2-dependent genes that play an important role in protecting astrocytes from H2O2- and PAF-induced apoptosis, we performed oligonucleotide microarray analysis. The genes changed by Nrf2 and/or tBHQ were identified by four comparisons, as depicted in Fig.5A. tBHQ increased 16 genes (stromal cell-derived factor, Induced in fatty liver dystrophy-2, histones 1H2B and H2A,histone H1, TG-interacting factor,Thy-1.2 glycoprotein, Lumican,cysteine- and histidine-rich-1, ectonucleotide pyrophosphatase/phosphodiesterase-2, proteasome 26 S subunit, and six expressed sequence tags) and decreased 27 genes in Nrf2−/− astrocytes (comparison I in Fig.5A), suggesting that the changes in expression of these genes are Nrf2-independent. Genes changed by Nrf2 in the absence of tBHQ (comparison II) are listed in Table I, and genes changed by tBHQ in the presence (comparison III) or absence (comparison I) of Nrf2 are listed in Table II. Interestingly, the majority of the genes increased by tBHQ in Nrf2+/+ astrocytes (97