Autophagy is a degradative process that recycles long-lived and faulty cellular components. It is linked to many diseases and is required for normal development. ULK1, a mammalian serine/threonine protein kinase, plays a key role in the initial stages of autophagy, though the exact molecular mechanism is unknown. Here we report identification of a novel protein complex containing ULK1 and two additional protein factors, FIP200 and ATG13, all of which are essential for starvation-induced autophagy. Both FIP200 and ATG13 are critical for correct localization of ULK1 to the pre-autophagosome and stability of ULK1 protein. Additionally, we demonstrate by using both cellular experiments and a de novo in vitro reconstituted reaction that FIP200 and ATG13 can enhance ULK1 kinase activity individually but both are required for maximal stimulation. Further, we show that ATG13 and ULK1 are phosphorylated by the mTOR pathway in a nutrient starvation-regulated manner, indicating that the ULK1·ATG13·FIP200 complex acts as a node for integrating incoming autophagy signals into autophagosome biogenesis. Autophagy is a degradative process that recycles long-lived and faulty cellular components. It is linked to many diseases and is required for normal development. ULK1, a mammalian serine/threonine protein kinase, plays a key role in the initial stages of autophagy, though the exact molecular mechanism is unknown. Here we report identification of a novel protein complex containing ULK1 and two additional protein factors, FIP200 and ATG13, all of which are essential for starvation-induced autophagy. Both FIP200 and ATG13 are critical for correct localization of ULK1 to the pre-autophagosome and stability of ULK1 protein. Additionally, we demonstrate by using both cellular experiments and a de novo in vitro reconstituted reaction that FIP200 and ATG13 can enhance ULK1 kinase activity individually but both are required for maximal stimulation. Further, we show that ATG13 and ULK1 are phosphorylated by the mTOR pathway in a nutrient starvation-regulated manner, indicating that the ULK1·ATG13·FIP200 complex acts as a node for integrating incoming autophagy signals into autophagosome biogenesis. Macroautophagy (herein referred to as autophagy) is a catabolic process whereby long-lived proteins and damaged organelles are shuttled to lysosomes for degradation. This process is conserved in all eukaryotes. Under normal growth conditions a housekeeping level of autophagy exists. Under stress, such as nutrient starvation, autophagy is strongly induced resulting in the engulfment of cytosolic components and organelles in specialized double-membrane structures termed autophagosomes. Following fusion of the outer autophagosomal membrane with lysosomes, the inner membrane and its cytoplasmic cargo are degraded and recycled (1Klionsky D.J. J. Cell Sci. 2005; 118: 7-18Crossref PubMed Scopus (770) Google Scholar, 2Levine B. Klionsky D.J. Dev. Cell. 2004; 6: 463-477Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (3218) Google Scholar, 3Mizushima N. Genes Dev. 2007; 21: 2861-2873Crossref PubMed Scopus (2954) Google Scholar). Recent work has implicated autophagy in many disease pathologies, including cancer, neurodegeneration, as well as in eliminating intracellular pathogens (4Gutierrez M.G. Master S.S. Singh S.B. Taylor G.A. Colombo M.I. Deretic V. Cell. 2004; 119: 753-766Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (1769) Google Scholar, 5Komatsu M. Waguri S. Chiba T. Murata S. Iwata J. Tanida I. Ueno T. Koike M. Uchiyama Y. Kominami E. Tanaka K. Nature. 2006; 441: 880-884Crossref PubMed Scopus (2850) Google Scholar, 6Pattingre S. Tassa A. Qu X. Garuti R. Liang X.H. 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Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 2005; 102: 13933-13938Crossref PubMed Scopus (183) Google Scholar), while the Tor pathway hyperphosphorylates Atg13 causing a reduced affinity of Atg13 for Atg1, resulting in repression of autophagy (17Kabeya Y. Kamada Y. Baba M. Takikawa H. Sasaki M. Ohsumi Y. Mol. Biol. Cell. 2005; 16: 2544-2553Crossref PubMed Scopus (272) Google Scholar, 19Kamada Y. Funakoshi T. Shintani T. Nagano K. Ohsumi M. Ohsumi Y. J. Cell Biol. 2000; 150: 1507-1513Crossref PubMed Scopus (910) Google Scholar). In contrast, nutrient starvation or inhibition of Tor leads to dephosphorylation of Atg13 thus increased Atg1 complex formation and kinase activity, resulting in stimulation of autophagy (19Kamada Y. Funakoshi T. Shintani T. Nagano K. Ohsumi M. Ohsumi Y. J. Cell Biol. 2000; 150: 1507-1513Crossref PubMed Scopus (910) Google Scholar). Surprisingly, the physiological substrates of Atg1 kinase have not been identified; thus how Atg1 transduces upstream autophagic signaling is undefined. Recently, mammalian homologs of Atg1 have been identified as ULK1 and ULK2 (Unc-51-like kinase) 2The abbreviations used are: ULK, Unc-51-like kinase; DTT, dithiothreitol; PBS, phosphate-buffered saline; GFP, green fluorescent protein; IP, immunoprecipitation; MEF, mouse embryonic fibroblast; RNAi, RNA interference; MBP, myelin basic protein; mTOR, mammalian target of rapamycin. (23Chan E.Y. Kir S. Tooze S.A. J. Biol. Chem. 2007; 282: 25464-25474Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (360) Google Scholar, 24Young A.R. Chan E.Y. Hu X.W. Kochl R. Crawshaw S.G. High S. Hailey D.W. Lippincott-Schwartz J. Tooze S.A. J. Cell Sci. 2006; 119: 3888-3900Crossref PubMed Scopus (607) Google Scholar, 25Hara T. Takamura A. Kishi C. Iemura S. Natsume T. Guan J.L. Mizushima N. J. Cell Biol. 2008; 181: 497-510Crossref PubMed Scopus (726) Google Scholar). ULK1 and ULK2 are ubiquitously expressed and localize to the isolation membrane, or forming autophagosome, upon nutrient starvation (25Hara T. Takamura A. Kishi C. Iemura S. Natsume T. Guan J.L. Mizushima N. J. Cell Biol. 2008; 181: 497-510Crossref PubMed Scopus (726) Google Scholar); RNAi-mediated depletion of ULK1 in HEK293 cells compromises autophagy (23Chan E.Y. Kir S. Tooze S.A. J. Biol. Chem. 2007; 282: 25464-25474Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (360) Google Scholar, 24Young A.R. Chan E.Y. Hu X.W. Kochl R. Crawshaw S.G. High S. Hailey D.W. Lippincott-Schwartz J. Tooze S.A. J. Cell Sci. 2006; 119: 3888-3900Crossref PubMed Scopus (607) Google Scholar). The exact role of ULK1 versus ULK2 in autophagy is unclear, and it is possible some redundancy exists between the two isoforms (26Kundu M. Lindsten T. Yang C.Y. Wu J. Zhao F. Zhang J. Selak M.A. Ney P.A. Thompson C.B. Blood. 2008; 112: 1493-1502Crossref PubMed Scopus (440) Google Scholar). Given the conservation of autophagy from yeast to man, it is interesting to note that no mammalian counterpart to yeast Atg13 or Atg17 had been identified until very recently. The protein FIP200 (focal adhesion kinase family-interacting protein of 200 kDa) was identified as an autophagy-essential binding partner of both ULK1 and ULK2 (25Hara T. Takamura A. Kishi C. Iemura S. Natsume T. Guan J.L. Mizushima N. J. Cell Biol. 2008; 181: 497-510Crossref PubMed Scopus (726) Google Scholar), and it has been speculated that FIP200 might be the equivalent of yeast Atg17, despite low sequence similarity (25Hara T. Takamura A. Kishi C. Iemura S. Natsume T. Guan J.L. Mizushima N. J. Cell Biol. 2008; 181: 497-510Crossref PubMed Scopus (726) Google Scholar, 27Hara T. Mizushima N. Autophagy. 2009; 5: 85-87Crossref PubMed Scopus (94) Google Scholar). In this study, we delve deeper into the molecular regulation of ULK1 to gain a better insight into how mammalian signaling pathways affect autophagy initiation. We describe here the identification of a triple complex consisting of ULK1, FIP200, and the mammalian equivalent of Atg13. This complex is required not only for localization of ULK1 to the isolation membrane but also for maximal kinase activity. In addition, both ATG13 and ULK1 are kinase substrates in the mTOR pathway and thus might function to sense nutrient starvation. Therefore, this study defines the role of mammalian ULK1-ATG13-FIP200 complex in mediating the initial autophagic triggers and to transduce the signal to the core autophagic machinery. Reagents and Antibodies—Rabbit anti-ULK1 (A7481) and mouse anti-FLAG (clone M2) were purchased from Sigma, rabbit anti-FIP200 from ProteinTech Inc., mouse anti-Myc clone 9E10 was obtained from the monoclonal antibody facility at Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, mouse anti-GFP from Roche Applied Sciences, and mouse anti-T7 and mouse anti-S tag were from Novagen. Rapamycin was purchased from Sigma. Cloning and Protein Expression—cDNAs were purchased ATCC: mouse ULK1 (clone ID 6834534) from OpenBiosystems: mouse LOC51897/ATG13 (clone ID 5359944), human FIP200 (clone ID 3908134). For expression in MEF cells, ULK1 was subcloned into pBabe/puro containing an N-terminal FLAG and S tag; ATG13 was subcloned into pBabe/blast containing an N-terminal GFP tag. For expression in 293T cells, ULK1 was subcloned into pCMV-Tag4 (Invitrogen) containing a C-terminal FLAG tag, and both ATG13 and FIP200 were subcloned into pCMV-Tag3 (Invitrogen) containing an N-terminal Myc tag. pIC194 (N-terminal mCherry) was a kind gift from Dr. Iain Cheeseman, Ludwig Institute for Cancer Research, San Diego, CA. Mammalian expression vectors encoding Myc-tagged mTOR and Myc-tagged kinase-dead mTOR were obtained from Addgene, courtesy of the Sabatini Laboratory, Whitehead Institute for Biomedical Research. For recombinant protein expression, ULK1 and FIP200 were subcloned into pFastBac containing N-terminal His tag, while ATG13 was subcloned into pFastBac containing N-terminal His and FLAG tag. Additionally ATG13 was subcloned into pET28a for expression in Escherichia coli. Recombinant proteins for ULK1, FIP200, and ATG13 were expressed in Sf9 cells using the Bac-to-Bac expression system from Invitrogen. Cell pellets were resuspended in Buffer T (20 mm Tris, pH 8.0, 50 mm NaCl, 2 mm β-mercaptoethanol) and purified over a nickel column. Following extensive washing, proteins were eluted stepwise in Buffer T containing 10–250 mm imidazole. Pure fractions were pooled and dialyzed in 25 mm Tris, pH 7.5, 100 mm NaCl, and 1 mm DTT, before snap-freezing and storage at -80 °C. In the case of ULK1 and FIP200, protein was further purified by ion-exchange chromatography over an SP-Sepharose column and a Q-Sepharose column, respectively, followed by dialysis and snap-freezing. T7-ATG10 was expressed in bacteria and purified as described previously (28Shao Y. Gao Z. Feldman T. Jiang X. Autophagy. 2007; 3: 10-16Crossref PubMed Scopus (40) Google Scholar). Cell Culture—All mammalian cells were cultured in Dulbecco's modified Eagle's medium (DMEM), supplemented with 10% fetal bovine serum and penicillin/streptomycin and cultured at 37 °C, 5% CO2. For induction of autophagy, cells were typically grown to 75% confluency and washed twice and incubated in amino acid-free DMEM for 1 h (or complete medium as a control) unless indicated. Rapamycin at 500 nm was included in complete growth medium where indicated. Transfection and Transduction—293T cells and U2OS cells were transfected with Lipofectamine2000 (Invitrogen) according to the manufacturer's recommendations and typically analyzed 24-h post-transfection. MEF cells were stably transduced using a Moloney murine leukemia retrovirus-based pBabe system with 293T cells used as the packaging cell line. Tandem Affinity Purification of ULK1-binding Partners—40 15×-cm plates of MEF cells, stably expressing low levels of FLAG and S-tagged ULK1 or control cells expressing vector alone were placed on ice, washed twice, in cold PBS, and lysed in IP buffer (50 mm HEPES, pH 7.4, 150 mm NaCl, 1 mm EDTA, 0.5 mm DTT, 10% glycerol, 0.5% Triton X-100) plus protease inhibitors. Lysates were then centrifuged for 10 min at 5,000 × g, 4 °C, followed by an additional spin at 100,000 × g for 1 h at 4 °C. Clarified lysates were then incubated with anti-FLAG-agarose beads (Sigma) overnight with rotation at 4 °C. Following washes, bound proteins were eluted in IP buffer containing 200 μg/ml 3× FLAG peptide (Sigma) for 30 min on ice. Eluates were then incubated with anti-S tag beads (Novagen) for 4 h at 4 °C with rotation. Following four washes in IP buffer and one wash in PBS, samples were eluted in SDS-sample buffer and proteins identified by mass spectrometry. RNA Interference—The shRNA constructs against mouse FIP200 and ATG13 were generated using pSuperRetro vector according to the manufacturer's procedure (OligoEngine). The FIP200 DNA sequences used in the RNAi constructs were: GAGAGAACTTGTTGAGAAA and ACATGAAGGCTCAGAGAAA. The ULK1 sequences: GAGCAAGAGCACACGGAAA and AGACTCCTGTGACACAGAT. The ATG13 sequences: GAGAAGAATGTCCGAGAAT and ACAGGAAGGACTTGGACAA. Following transfection and puromycin selection, multiple stable clones were chosen and showed no significant variation in phenotype with respect to protein knock-down. RT-PCR—Control and ATG13 knock-down cells grown in a 6×-cm plate were harvested using the Total RNA Mini kit (Bio-Rad). Total RNA was measured, and 0.5 μg of each sample was used for first strand cDNA synthesis (iScript cDNA Synthesis kit, Bio-Rad). One-tenth of the total cDNA reaction served as the template for the PCR reaction. Primers for both ATG13 and GAPDH were designed to amplify roughly 500 bp of the 3′-region of both genes. PCR was carried out using the Taq Polymerase per routine protocol. Immunoprecipitations—Following induction of autophagy, cells grown in 10×-cm plates were placed on ice and washed twice in ice-cold PBS followed by lysis in IP buffer plus protease inhibitors. Lysates were then centrifuged at maximum speed in a benchtop microcentrifuge at 4 °C for 10 min. Clarified lysates were then incubated with mouse anti-GFP for 1 h with rotation at room temperature, followed by addition of protein G-Sepharose beads (GE Healthcare) prewashed in IP buffer for an additional 30 min. Beads were then washed three times in IP buffer, followed by one wash in PBS before elution in SDS-sample buffer and analysis by SDS-PAGE and immunoblot. Binding Assays—Purified, recombinant protein at 100 nm was incubated in binding buffer (25 mm Tris, pH 7.5, 100 mm NaCl, 0.5 mm DTT, 0.5 mg/ml bovine serum albumin, 0.1% Triton X-100) for 1 h at room temperature with rotation. For ULK1 pull-down assays, reactions were incubated with rabbit anti-ULK1 for 30 min, followed by protein A-Sepharose beads, prewashed in binding buffer, for an additional 30 min. Beads were then washed four times in binding buffer followed by elution in sample buffer and analysis by SDS-PAGE and immunoblot. For ATG13 pull-down assays, samples were incubated with prewashed T7-agarose beads (Novagen) for 1 h before washing in binding buffer and analysis as for ULK1 pull-down. Gel Filtration—The indicated recombinant proteins, at 100 nm, were preincubated in gel filtration buffer (25 mm Tris, pH 7.5, 100 mm NaCl, 1 mm DTT) and 0.5 mg/ml bovine serum albumin for 1 h before loading 50 μl onto a SMART-FPLC system Superose 6 column, pre-equlibrated in gel filtration buffer. 100-μl fractions were collected and analyzed by SDS-PAGE and immunoblot. Kinase Assays—Typically, 10 nm purified recombinant ULK1 and the indicated amount of FIP200 or ATG13 was incubated in kinase buffer (25 mm HEPES, pH 7.4, 50 mm NaCl, 5 mm MgCl2, 1 mm DTT, 0.5 mg/ml bovine serum albumin) containing 0.3 mg/ml myelin basic protein, 30 μm cold ATP, and 0.5 μCi of [γ32-P]ATP for 10 min at 30 °C. Reactions were stopped by the addition of sample buffer, followed by SDS-PAGE, transfer to nitrocellulose, and analysis by phosphorImager. Immunofluorescence—Cells were processed for immunofluorescence essentially as described (29Ganley I.G. Carroll K. Bittova L. Pfeffer S. Mol. Biol. Cell. 2004; 15: 5420-5430Crossref PubMed Scopus (132) Google Scholar). Slides were visualized on A Nikon Eclipse TE2000-U microscope and images processed using Adobe Photoshop. ULK1 Forms a Triple Complex with ATG13 and FIP200—To understand the precise role of ULK1 in autophagy initiation, we screened for ULK1-interacting partners using a tandem affinity tag immunoprecipitation (IP) approach. We generated a mouse embryonic fibroblast (MEF) cell line stably expressing a ULK1 construct with an N-terminal FLAG and S tag (F/S-ULK1). Following sequential IP with anti-FLAG and anti-S tag antibodies, ULK1-associated proteins were identified by mass spectrometry. Two proteins identified were FIP200 and hypothetical protein LOC51897. During the course of this study, two reports were published describing FIP200 as a ULK-interacting protein (25Hara T. Takamura A. Kishi C. Iemura S. Natsume T. Guan J.L. Mizushima N. J. Cell Biol. 2008; 181: 497-510Crossref PubMed Scopus (726) Google Scholar) and a human ULK-interacting protein distantly related to yeast Atg13 (30Chan E.Y. Longatti A. McKnight N.C. Tooze S.A. Mol. Cell. Biol. 2009; 29: 157-171Crossref PubMed Scopus (346) Google Scholar), which had been previously identified in a bioinformatics analysis as a potential equivalent to yeast Atg13 (31Meijer W.H. van der Klei I.J. Veenhuis M. Kiel J.A. Autophagy. 2007; 3: 106-116Crossref PubMed Scopus (230) Google Scholar). This latter protein turns out to be the homolog of the mouse LOC51897 discovered here. Further, although sequence similarity between LOC51897 and yeast Atg13 is very limited, we found significant sequence homology between LOC51897 and Caenorhabditis elegans ATG13 (data not shown). Based on these observations and the functional analysis described below, we now refer to LOC51897 as ATG13. Although FIP200 and ATG13 have been identified as binding proteins of ULK1, how they regulate ULK1 is not clear. Therefore in this study we seek to understand the effect of FIP200 and ATG13 on ULK1 function. We hypothesize that ULK1 may form a complex with both proteins, analogous to the yeast Atg1·Atg13·Atg17 complex. Using MEF cells expressing GFP-ATG13, we confirmed the interaction between ULK1 and ATG13. Importantly, IP of GFP-ATG13 with anti-GFP led to not only the co-IP of endogenous ULK1 but also endogenous FIP200, whereas GFP alone failed to co-IP ULK1 or FIP200 (Fig. 1A). Interestingly, we found that both ULK1 and GFP-ATG13 run as multiple bands on SDS-PAGE and that upon starvation there is a downshift of both proteins to a faster migrating form (Fig. 1A, compare lane 3 with 4). This is indicative of a starvation-induced dephosphorylation event and indeed, treatment of cell lysate with phosphatase results in a similar downshift of ULK1 and ATG13 (see below and Fig. 5). In addition, ULK1 has previously been shown to be phosphorylated in cells (25Hara T. Takamura A. Kishi C. Iemura S. Natsume T. Guan J.L. Mizushima N. J. Cell Biol. 2008; 181: 497-510Crossref PubMed Scopus (726) Google Scholar, 30Chan E.Y. Longatti A. McKnight N.C. Tooze S.A. Mol. Cell. Biol. 2009; 29: 157-171Crossref PubMed Scopus (346) Google Scholar). Induction of autophagy by amino acid starvation failed to significantly alter the amount of ULK1 or FIP200 associating with GFP-ATG13 (Fig. 1A, compare lane 11 with 12), implying that ATG13 is interacting with ULK1 and FIP200 prior to autophagy induction.FIGURE 5ULK1 and ATG13 are subjected to mTOR-mediated phosphorylation. A, ULK1 remains partially phosphorylated following autophagy induction. MEF cells were incubated in amino acid-free medium (starve) for 1 h followed by lysis. Lysates were then treated with phosphatase, or mock-treated, followed by immunoblot to analyze the mobility of ULK1. B, ATG13 is dephosphorylated upon autophagy induction. Lysates derived from MEF cells stably expressing GFP-ATG13 were either treated or mock-treated with phosphatase then subject to SDS-PAGE and immunoblotting anti-GFP. C, ULK1 and ATG13 are dephosphorylated upon autophagy induction. MEF cells expressing GFP-ATG13 were incubated in complete medium (control), medium containing 500 nm rapamycin (rapamycin) or amino acid-free medium (starve), followed by lysis and immunoblot with anti-ULK1 (top panel) or anti-GFP (bottom panel). Samples were loaded in duplicate. D, mTOR overexpression increases ATG13 phosphorylation. 293T cells were transfected with Myc-tagged ATG13, either alone or in combination with Myc-tagged wild type (WT) or kinase-dead (dead) mTOR as indicated. 24-h post-transfection cells were incubated in complete medium, medium containing 500 nm rapamycin, or amino acid-free medium (starve) for 1.5 h. Cells were then lysed, loaded in duplicate, and subjected to SDS-PAGE and immunoblot with anti-Myc.View Large Image Figure ViewerDownload Hi-res image Download (PPT) The co-IP of both ULK1 and FIP200 with GFP-ATG13 suggests that either ATG13 interacts with both proteins simultaneously or that there are two pools of ATG13: one that interacts with ULK1 exclusively and one that interacts with FIP200. In yeast, Atg1 is thought to primarily interact with Atg17 through Atg13 (17Kabeya Y. Kamada Y. Baba M. Takikawa H. Sasaki M. Ohsumi Y. Mol. Biol. Cell. 2005; 16: 2544-2553Crossref PubMed Scopus (272) Google Scholar). To determine if the interaction of GFP-ATG13 with ULK1 is mediated by FIP200 we carried out the co-IP of ULK1 in FIP200-depleted cells. We found that similar amount of ULK1 was co-precipitated with GFP-ATG13 in cells stably depleted of FIP200 by shRNA compared with control cells (Fig. 1A, compare lanes 11 and 12 with lanes 15 and 16). Conversely, the interaction between GFP-ATG13 and FIP200 was unaffected by depletion of ULK1 (Fig. 1A, compare lanes 11 and 12 with lanes 13 and 14), suggesting that ATG13 can interact independently with both ULK1 and FIP200 (though in the case of ULK1-depletion we cannot rule out ULK2 acting as a replacement). It could be argued that even though shRNA-mediated depletion of ULK1 or FIP200 is efficient (with ∼90% of the respective protein gone) there is still trace amounts of FIP200 (or ULK1) sufficient to mediate the interaction of ULK1 (or FIP200) with GFP-ATG13. We think this is unlikely as the depletion is sufficient to disrupt starvation-induced autophagy in these cells, as measured by immunofluorescence and Western blot of GFP-LC3 (Fig. 1, C and D). To confirm that all three proteins are required for starvation-mediated autophagy, we expressed GFP-LC3 in cells depleted of ATG13, FIP200, and ULK1. Due to a lack of available ATG13 antibodies, we used mRNA levels and RT-PCR to monitor ATG13 depletion. As is depicted in Fig. 1B, ATG13 mRNA levels were almost undetectable in two stable MEF clones (unless stated, clone 13-5 was used in the experiments described below. All other RNAi experiments were also performed using two independent stable cell clones with the same outcome), indicating efficient depletion. Stable RNAi-depletion of ULK1 and FIP200 was monitored by Western blot (see Figs. 1A and 4C and supplemental Fig. S2A). Conjugation of cytosolic LC3 (form I) to the lipid phosphatidylethanolamine (form II) on the autophagosomal membrane, coupled with its subsequent degradation as the autophagosomes fuse with lysosomes is a hallmark of autophagy. When GFP-LC3 levels were monitored in control-depleted cells, there was clear conversion of the unconjugated form I to the lipidated form II and an overall reduction in GFP-LC3 levels upon amino acid withdrawal, indicating autophagy induction (Fig. 1C). However, in ATG13, FIP200 and ULK1-depleted cells, the conversion of LC3 to the lipidated form or the reduction in levels was inhibited, indicating a block of autophagy in response to amino acid deprivation (Fig. 1C). This result is further supported by GFP-LC3 immunofluorescence in cells (Fig. 1D): in control cells there is an increase in GFP-LC3 punctae upon starvation, indicating a large increase in autophagosome formation and correlating well with the Western blot data in Fig. 1C; In contrast, no significant increase in GFP-LC3 punctae was observed in the ATG13, FIP200, or ULK1-depleted cells, confirming the autophagy block in these cells. If ULK1, ATG13, and FIP200 interact in cells, then it is reasonable to assume that they will colocalize together by immunofluorescence microscopy. ULK1 and FIP200 have been shown to be primarily cytosolic in resting cells but localize with the isolation membrane marker ATG5, upon stimulation of autophagy (see Fig. 3A and Ref. 25Hara T. Takamura A. Kishi C. Iemura S. Natsume T. Guan J.L. Mizushima N. J. Cell Biol. 2008; 181: 497-510Crossref PubMed Scopus (726) Google Scholar). In the recent report detailing the discovery of human ATG13, a FLAG-tagged version showed a partial co-localization with GFP-LC3, which marks both the isolation membrane and mature autophagosome, upon starvation (30Chan E.Y. Longatti A. McKnight N.C. Tooze S.A. Mol. Cell. Biol. 2009; 29: 157-171Crossref PubMed Scopus (346) Google Scholar). To determine whether indeed ATG13 is localizing specifically to the isolation membrane, we transduced F/S-ULK1 stable MEFs with GFP-ATG13 retrovirus. Both ULK1 and GFP-ATG13 displayed a cytosolic staining pattern under normal growth conditions. However, they extensively co-localized to punctate structures upon starvation (supplemental Fig. S1). To confirm the co-localization of these three proteins, we transiently transfected U2OS cells with mCherry-ULK1 and GFP-ATG13 or GFP-ULK1 and mCherry-FIP200, under amino acid-starved conditions. As in Fig. 1E, the majority of mCherry-ULK1 punctae and GFP-ATG13 punctae colocalize with each other (top panels), and so do the majority of GFP-ULK1 punctae and mCherry-FIP200 punctae (bottom panels), while in normal culture medium these proteins displayed a diffusive, cytosolic staining pattern (data not shown). Therefore a significant proportion of ULK1, ATG13, and FIP200 colocalize at the isolation membrane upon amino acid starvation, supporting the hypothesis that all three proteins interact in a complex. To gain definitive evidence that ULK1, ATG13, and FIP200 can interact directly and form a complex, we carried out in vitro binding assays using purified recombinant proteins produced in Sf9 cells (F