Plants have evolved a complex innate immune system that deploys two interconnected receptor layers to detect the invasion of various pathogens. Cell surface-resident pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) perceive pathogen- or microbe-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs/MAMPs), initiating a basal defense response called pattern-triggered immunity (PTI) (Zhou and Zhang, 2020). Intracellular nucleotide-binding domain leucine-rich repeat-containing receptors (NLRs) directly or indirectly sense the effector proteins secreted by pathogens for overcoming PTI or making a comfortable environment, thereby activating an enhanced resistance response called effector-triggered immunity (ETI) (Zhou and Zhang, 2020). Activation of PRR and NLR requires different perception systems, whereas PTI and ETI trigger diverse overlapping downstream signal responses although with distinct amplitudes and temporal dynamics, including calcium flux, activation of mitogen-activated protein kinase cascades, reactive oxygen species (ROS) burst, transcriptional reprogramming, and phytohormones signaling (Yuan et al., 2021). Recent studies have suggested substantial crosstalk between NLR-mediated and PRR-mediated immune signaling, which potentiate each other to strengthen immune responses for a maximal output (Yuan et al., 2021). Reactive oxygen species and phosphatidic acid (PA) are important second messengers involved in plant immunity. ROS production is a conserved immune response in plants. A rapid and transient ROS burst is triggered in PTI, whereas a secondary sustained ROS production is associated with co-activation of PTI and ETI (Yuan et al., 2021). Generation of extracellular ROS in immunity is mainly mediated by reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate oxidases that belong to the respiratory burst oxidase homolog (RBOH) family, among which the plasma membrane-localized RBOH D (RBOHD) acts as a major player (Kadota et al., 2015). Phosphorylation of RBOHD at specific residues by multiple kinases regulates extracellular ROS production (Yuan et al., 2021). PA has been shown to be an important secondary messenger regulating plant development and stress responses (Testerink and Munnik, 2011). During plant–microbe interaction, a PA burst is triggered by diverse PAMPs or effectors (Testerink and Munnik, 2011). PA can be generated from diacylglycerol (DAG) by DAG kinases (DGKs) in the phospholipase C (PLC) pathway, or from structural phospholipids by phospholipase D (PLD) enzymes, respectively (Testerink and Munnik, 2011). PA has been demonstrated to directly bind to RBOHD, thereby activating ROS production during the abscisic acid-mediated stomatal closure process (Zhang et al., 2009). Studies also revealed that PA is essential for ROS production during plant immunity (D'Ambrosio et al., 2017; Kalachova et al., 2022). However, the mechanisms of the initiation of PA burst, the regulation of PA homeostasis in immune response to diverse stimuli, and how PA regulates plant immunity, remain elusive. Recently, in two issues of Cell and Cell Host & Microbe, two independent research groups reported the mechanism by which diacylglycerol kinase 5 (DGK5)-derived PA burst regulates RBOHD-mediated ROS production in plant immune responses (Kong et al., 2024; Qi et al., 2024). In these works, the authors revealed that DGK5-derived PA stabilizes RBOHD protein to promote PAMP-induced ROS production. Additionally, they found that two PRR-associated receptor-like cytoplasmic kinases (RLCKs), Botrytis-induced kinase 1 (BIK1) and RPM1-induced protein kinase (RIPK) (also known as AvrPphB-susceptible 1-like 14 (PBL14)), phosphorylate DGK5 to activate its enzymatic activity, leading to a rapid PA burst and stimulation of plant immunity (Kong et al., 2024; Qi et al., 2024). In addition, Kong et al. (2024) found that Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase 4 (MPK4) phosphorylates DGK5 at a distinct residue, functioning opposingly to BIK1 in maintaining PA homeostasis and fine-tuning immune outputs. Moreover, Qi et al. (2024) found that chitin elicitor receptor kinase 1 (CERK1) phosphorylates RIPK in vitro, facilitating activation of RIPK via a phosphor-relay mechanism, which promotes the generation of PA and subsequently enhances ROS production (Figure 1). Diacylglycerol kinase 5 (DGK5)-derived phosphatidic acid (PA) regulates reactive oxygen species (ROS) production in plant immunity Upon immune elicitation, BCL2 Antagonist/Killer 1 (BAK1) or chitin elicitor kinase 1 (CERK1) coreceptors phosphorylate Botrytis-induced kinase 1 (BIK1) or RPM1-induced protein kinase (RIPK), respectively. Activated BIK1 or RIPK phosphorylates DGK5 at Ser506 to activate its enzymatic activity, leading to PA production and potentiation of both pattern-triggered immunity (PTI) and effector-triggered immunity (ETI). Subsequently, DGK5-derived PA directly binds to and stabilizes respiratory burst oxidase homolog D (RBOHD) by inhibiting AvrPphB-susceptible 1-like 14/PBL13 interacting RING domain E3 ubiquitin ligase (PBL13/PIRE)-mediated vacuolar degradation, resulting in an enhancement of ROS production. Opposingly, phosphorylation of DGK5 by MPK4 at Thr446 inhibits its activity, which maintains PA homeostasis and fine-tunes immune outputs. In these works, the authors uncovered that binding of DGK5-derived PA to RBOHD protein decreases PBL13 interacting RING domain E3 ubiquitin ligase (PIRE)-mediated vacuolar degradation of RBOHD, which stabilizes RBOHD and thereby promotes ROS production in both PTI and ETI signaling. Through screening, two RLCKs, BIK1 and RIPK, were found to interact with DGK5. Kinase analysis revealed that both BIK1 and RIPK phosphorylate the same residue Ser506 within a conserved pS-x-x-L phosphorylation motif targeted by RLCKs in the C terminus of DGK5, although Ser506 is not required for the interaction of DGK5 with BIK1 or RIPK. Furthermore, Kong et al. (2024) showed that two additional RLCKs, PBL30 and PBL31, which are involved in PTI signaling activated by the PAMPs pg23 and nlp20, also phosphorylate DGK5 in vitro. Besides pg23 and nlp20 that are perceived by RLPs, diverse PAMPs and phytocytokines such as flg22, chitin, elf18, and Pep1 that are perceived by RLKs, also induce the phosphorylation of DGK5 protein. Together, the findings suggested a conserved mechanism for the PBLs-DGK5 module and Ser506 phosphorylation in regulating PA production during PTI. Of note, Kong et al. (2024) observed that the induction of AvrRpt2 or AvrRpm1 expression by dexamethasone (Dex), which can trigger RPS2- or RPM1-mediated ETI, leads to elevated phosphorylation levels of DGK5. Additionally, they found that DGK5-derived PA is necessary for the ETI-induced ROS burst and plant resistance. This implied that the phosphorylation-mediated regulation of DGK5 is conserved in ETI. However, the specific kinases mediating DGK5 phosphorylation in ETI require further investigation. Kong et al. (2024) also identified another phosphorylated site, Thr446, which is probably phosphorylated by MAPKs, using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). Further protein–protein interaction and kinase analysis confirmed that MPK4 interacts with and phosphorylates DGK5 at Thr446. Phosphorylation of DGK5 by BIK1 or MPK4 at distinct sites does not affect each other, suggesting the independence of these two phosphorylation events. Opposite to BIK1 phosphorylating DGK5 at Ser506, which promotes DGK5-derived PA production and subsequent ROS production, phosphorylation of DGK5 at Thr446 by MPK4 inhibits DGK5 activity in producing PA. The distinct phosphorylation events of DGK5 maintain PA homeostasis in plant immunity. Interestingly, DGK5 has two transcripts, DGK5α and DGK5β. Qi et al. (2024) showed that only DGK5β, but not DGK5α which lacks an extra putative C-terminal calmodulin-binding domain (CBD) domain, can restore the decreased PAMP-induced ROS burst in the dgk5 mutants. Through bimolecular fluorescence complementation and co-immunoprecipitation assays, the CBD of DGK5β was found to be required for the interaction of DGK5β with RBOHD or RIPK. Furthermore, mutation of the Ser506 residue within the CBD was found to disrupt the interaction between DGK5β and RBOHD, highlighting the significance of the CBD in the production of PAMP-activated PA. These data implied the involvement of Ca2+ signaling in regulating the production of PA and ROS, as well as the interplay with PA and ROS signaling in plant innate immunity, shedding new light on the research of plant immunity. A burst of new knowledge has been acquired over the last 5 years on the structural basis and biochemical processes underlying the activation of PRRs and NLRs and downstream signaling events (Zhou and Zhang, 2020; Yuan et al., 2021). In these two studies, Kong et al. (2024) and Qi et al. (2024) provided a comprehensive analysis of the mechanism by which PA production and homeostasis regulates and interplays with ROS signaling upon PTI and ETI elicitation. These discoveries clarified the role of DGK5-derived PA in plant immunity, which expands our understanding of the plant immune signaling network. In addition to DGK5, other enzymes synthesizing PA that are involved in plant defense response, such as PLDs, could not be ruled out to play similar roles as DGK5. Kong et al. (2024) also found that DGK5-derived PA contributes to ETI-mediated disease resistance but not hypersensitive response, while exogenous application of high concentrations of PA could stimulate cell death. Therefore, the function of PA signaling in plant immunity is still not fully understood, which requires further research to be conducted in the future. We are sincerely thankful for funding from the Taishan Scholars Program (tsqn202306306), the Key Research and Development Program of Shandong Province (2022LZGC005), China Postdoctoral Science Foundation (2023M732123), and Shandong Postdoctoral Science Foundation (SDBX2022016). The authors declare they have no conflict of interest. G.Q. and X.-F.X. conceived the manuscript. D.W., M.Y., and Y.Z. drafted the manuscript. G.Q. and X.-F.X. revised the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.